2.3: Prime Minister and Executive Flashcards
1
Q
What is the executive?
A
EXECUTIVE
- In the British Parliamentary system, the executive sits within the legislature and is responsible for the decision making the government of the country.
2
Q
What is the structure of the executive?
A
EXECUTIVE STRUCTURE
- Prime Minister
a) The head of the Executive who chairs the Cabinet and manages its agenda.
- Primus Inter Pares = First amongst equals.
b) Appoints all members of the Cabinet and junior ministers.
- Decides who sits on Cabinet Committees.
c) Organises the structure of government.
- Can create, abolish or merge departments.
d) Often will be advised by a team of ‘Special Advisors’ who work for the PM or in institutions such as the Cabinet Office and the Policy Unit at 10 Downing Street (which has a centralised role and soon to be conjoined with No.11).
- EXAMPLE. Dominic Cummings is Boris Johnsons.
e) Press secretary (Spin Doctors) exercise power in their right.
- EXAMPLE. Alistair Campbell under Tony Blair.
- EXAMPLE. Andy Coulson was in charge of communications under Cameron with controversy over his relationship as a former Murdoch newspaper editor.
- EXAMPLE. James Slack under Theresa May.
f) The Core Executive comprises of ministers, senior civil servants and political advisers. - The Cabinet
a) Consists of 20-25 senior ministers, including those who are heads of departments of state and junior ministers (although they do not attend cabinet).
- The chief Whip normally is included.
- Meet on Thursday for 2 hours.
b) Administrative support and help in delivering policy are provided by the Cabinet Office, headed by the Cabinet Secretary, the UK’s most senior civil servant.
- Sir Mark Sedwill is the current Cabinet Secretary.
- The Cabinet Secretary provides impartial guidance to the PM as well as taking minutes for cabinet meetings.
c) Many decisions are taken in Cabinet Committees, which deal with particular areas of policy such as economic affairs and national security. - Government Departments
a) Each department is responsible for an area of policy.
b) They are headed by a Cabinet Minister (Secretary of State).
- Supported by several Junior Ministers responsible for specific aspects of the work of the department.
- Parliamentary Under-Secretaries of State also support departments (often sitting peers in the House of Lords). - Executive Agencies
a) Semi-independent bodies that carry out some of the functions of government departments.
- DVLA (Driver and Vehicle Licensing Agency) is overseen by the Department for Transport.
3
Q
What are the main roles of the Executive?
A
ROLES OF THE EXECUTIVE
- Proposing Legislation
a) Introduces manifesto programmes at the start of each Parliamentary session in the Queens Speech at the state opening of each new Parliament.
- EXAMPLE. The 2015 Queen’s Speech reflected the priorities of the majority Conservative Party under Cameron: an in/out referendum on the UK’s membership of the EU, measures that ensure that decisions affecting England will only be taken with the consent of those MPs, legislation to protect essential public services against strikes.
b) It also introduces legislation into Parliament in response to the changing circumstances such as terrorism, amending statutes; known as the ‘doctors mandate’.
- The Queen will reference this with “other measures laid before you”.
c) Ministers will often consult with interested parties, such as pressure groups and professional bodies, before introducing legislation.
- EXAMPLE. Cameron government took a consultation exercise with employers on its proposals to introduce an apprenticeship levy in 2015. This was a requirement for large companies to contribute towards the cost of training new workers introduced in the Finance Act 2016. - Proposing the Budge
a) Determines how the government proposes to raise revenue to fund public services.
- Presented in Autumn or though in more recent times they have also been held in Spring.
- Presented by the Chancellor of the Exchequer in negotiation with the PM.
b) If a new government is formed, it presents a new budget.
- EXAMPLE. George Osbourne delivered an emergency budget in June 2010 as an emergency budget only 90 days after the previous Labour’s budget. - Introduce Secondary or Delegated Legislation
a) When legislation has already been passed by Parliament, it can still be modified with statutory instruments without the need for new primary legislation.
- They have been criticised for being undemocratic as they bypass full parliamentary scrutiny and debate.
- EXAMPLE. Statutory Instruments were deployed in 2016 to abolish maintenance grants for University Students and to allow fracking to take place in national parks. - Making Policy Decisions
a) The executive has to decide how to give effect to its aims for the future direction of the country.
b) EXAMPLE. from the Coalition government.
- EXAMPLE. Welfare Reform Act 2012. Streamlining the welfare system by introducing a single benefit for working-age people known as ‘universal credit’.
- EXAMPLE. The Education Act 2011. Allowing Parents and voluntary schools to set up ‘free schools’, independent of local councils.
- EXAMPLE. Health and Social Care Act 2012. Introducing more competition into the NHS and putting GPs in control of commissioning of care for patients.
4
Q
What are the main powers of the Prime Minister?
A
MAIN POWERS OF THE PM
- Royal Prerogative Powers
a) Powers derived from the monarchy and exercised by the PM, including:
- Determines the membership of the Government, including the Cabinet and Cabinet Committees.
- Makes senior appointments to the Civil Service and judiciary.
- Appoints life peers to the House of Lords.
- Negotiates foreign treaties.
- Directs military forces in combats.
- Decides whether to launch Trident missiles.
- Grants legal pardons.
- Grants and withdraw passports.
- Awards honours.
b) The government also share the PMs royal prerogative.
- EXAMPLE. In 2013, the Ministry of Justice requested a posthumous royal pardon for Alan Turing (who cracked the German enigma code in WW2 but was convicted of gross indecency with another man in 1952.
c) Can also abolish and reform these powers.
- EXAMPLE. The 2011 Fixed Term Parliaments Act.
- EXAMPLE. Parliamentary approval for military action as seen in 2003 and in 2013 with airstrikes in Syria. - Initiation of legislation
a) Controls the majority of parliamentary time available.
b) The guillotine/The ‘Allocation of time’ motion (1887) is a procedure that allows the government to curtail debate on the individual clauses of bills, yet only applies to the Commons.
- EXAMPLE. Cameron attempted to use the guillotine in a Lords debate on the redrawing of constituency boundaries in 2011 but failed due to the opposition.
c) The Programming Motion
- Introduced by Blair, enables the executive to set out in advance the time limits for each stage in the passage of a bill.
- Since 2002, it has been possible for the government to carry over uncompleted legislation from one session to another, without having to start the legislative process again in the new session. - Secondary Legislation (Statutory Legislation)
- Casting the narrative of their government
a) Thatcher defined the free-market principles and uncompromising spirit of her governments.
b) David Cameron was increasingly socially liberal. - Power of Patronage
a) The ability to promote or demote anybody that they want.
5
Q
What is the source of power for the Prime Minister
A
SOURCES OF PM POWER
- Royal Prerogative
a) Asked by the Queen to form a government on her behalf.
- The individual asked to be PM will have been selected because they are able to command the support of the majority of MPs in the Commons.
b) Normally leader of the largest party.
- Exceptions in 1940 where George VI asked Winston Churchill to form a government since, although he was not the leader of the Conservative Party, the King was confident that only Churchill would be able to establish an all-party wartime coalition government.
c) A convention that the PM should be a member of the House of Commons.
- EXAMPLE. Lord Home formed a government following the resignation of Harold Macmillan in 1963, renouncing his peer and fighting in a by-election to secure a seat in the Commons.
d) The Monarch will be asked to replace their predecessors (James Callaghan, John Major, Gordon Brown, Theresa May, Boris Johnson).
6
Q
What are the main powers of Governmental Departments?
A
MAIN ROLE OF GOVERNMENTAL DEPARTMENTS
1. Implement government policy and administer its areas of interest and control.
- Cabinet minister manages the department
a) Major administrative and policy making function.
- Bound by collective ministerial responsibility.
b) Supported by Junior Ministers.
- Similarly bound by collective ministerial responsibility.
c) Further supported by Parliamentary under secretary of state.
d) Civil service defined by neutrality, anonymity and permanence.
- Therefore not expected to be held accountable for the actions of a department since the overall focus of policy and administration should have been determined by elected politicians.
- EXAMPLE The Home Office’s permanent secretary, Sir Philip Rutnam, resigned and sued the government for constructive dismissal after a series of clashes with the home secretary, Priti Patel in 2020.
7
Q
What is Individual Ministerial Responsibility alongside EXAMPLES?
A
INDIVIDUAL MINISTERIAL RESPONSIBILITY
- The Principle that members of the Cabinet take ultimate responsibility for what occurs within their department, including both administrative and policy failures.
- They are also individually responsible to the PM for their personal conduct.
- Found in the ‘Ministerial Code of Conduct’ issued at the start of government by the PM, which establishes that they are expected to maintain high standards of public behaviour.
- Administrative Failure Resignations
a) EXAMPLE. In 1954, Sir Thomas Dugdale resigned as Minister of Agriculture over the ‘Crichel Down Affair’ whereby his department failed to return the land to its rightful owner after it had been compulsory purchased to be a bombing range before WW2.
- Dugdale’s civil servants were mostly at fault, although Dugdale resigned in ‘accepting full responsibility for any mistakes’ as when officials bring odd any success, he takes credit, so must also bear failures.
b) EXAMPLE. Charles Clarke as Home Secretary to Tony Blair in 2006 was challenged by the opposition over the inability of the Home Office to account for the movements of 1023 foreign prisoners without being considered for deportation in the ‘Foreign Prisoners Affair’.
- 5 had been convicted of committing sex offences against children, 2 for manslaughter.
- Offered to resign in Private to Tony Blair, but vowed to resolve issues rather than resign.
- Sacked later due to heavy media coverage and poor results for the Labour Party in local elections.
c) EXAMPLE. In 2002, Education Secretary, Estelle Morris, resigned over responsibility for A-Level grade-fixing.
d) EXAMPLE. In 2018, Home Secretary, Amber Rudd, resigned when she admitted that she had not told the whole truth about there being ‘no targets’ for removing illegal immigrants’. Yet she had not been sufficiently aware of them and her treatment of the Windrush Scandal. - Policy Failure Resignations
a) EXAMPLE. In 1982, Lord Carrington resigned as foreign secretary from Thatcher’s government in the immediate aftermath of Argentina’s invasion of the Falklands.
- Beliving that he should have made it clearer what the response of the British Government would be to any military intervention.
b) EXAMPLE. The Chancellor of the Exchequer in 1992, Norman Lamont, refused to resign after ‘Black Wednesday’ after the Major government was forced to abandon the European Exchange Rate Mechanism (ERM), having raised interest rates by 5% to retain membership, as he was pursuing the policy of the PM if Major hadn’t resigned, neither should he. - Personal Misconduct (impression of poor behaviour)
a) EXAMPLE. Chris Huhne, Energy Secretary was forced to resign in 2012 from the coalition government over claims that he had perverted the course of justice by colluding with his former wife, Vicky Pryce, so that she took responsibility for his speeding offence.
- Both were convicted and sent to prison.
b) EXAMPLE. Michael Fallon, Defence Secretary, resigned in 2017 as a result of his inappropriate behaviour towards women falling below ‘high standards’.
- In order to limit the political impact of any allegations being publically made against him, he resigned from the Government.
c) EXAMPLE. Priti Patel, Overseas Development Secretary, resigned in 2017 over a series of unofficial private meetings that she had with Israeli ministers, including the PM, Benjamin Netanyahu. Her failure to report the meetings led to her dismissal.
d) EXAMPLE. Gavin Williamson, Defence Secretary, in December 2018, Williamson expressed “grave” and “very deep concerns” about the Chinese telecommunications company Huawei providing technology to upgrade Britain’s services to 5G. In 2019, there was a leak of confidential information relating to a National Security Council meeting. Theresa sacked him for compelling evidence.
e) EXAMPLE. Peter Mandelson resigned from Blair’s cabinet in 1998 as Trade and Industry Secretary after it was revealed that he was buying a house with the help of a loan supplied by a Cabinet colleague, whose business affairs were being investigated by Mandelson’s department. As Northern Ireland Secretary, he was forced out in 2001 by accusation that he had use his influence to fast-track a passport application by an Indian businessman. Later resigning.
f) EXAMPLE. David Mellor resigned as National Heritage Secretary in 1992 after his extra-marital affair with actress Antonia de Sancha.
g) EXAMPLE. Tim Smith resigned as Northern Ireland minister in 1994 after accepting cash for asking Parliamentary questions on behalf of Egyptian businessman Mohamed Al-Fayed (cash for questions affair).
h) EXAMPLE. Stephen Milligan, Conservative MP, was found dead in his house in 1994, apparently self-strangled during an act of autoerotic asphyxiation after being offered a ministerial job and celebrating.
i) EXAMPLE. Andrew Mitchell, Chief Whip 2012, was accused of insulting a policeman on duty in Downing Street calling him a ‘pleb’ and passionately swearing in what became known as ‘Plebgate’. - Erosion of Individual Responsibilities
a) Many functions have been delegated to executive agencies under a director-general rather than a minister which has led to doubt over accountability as the head of the agency exercises ‘operational responsibility’.
- EXAMPLE. Home Secretary in 1995, Michael Howard was blamed for mass breakouts from Parkhurst Jail. He controversially sacked the director-general of the Prisons Service, Derek Lewis, since he had been in operational control of the policy which had led to the escapes. Lewis later won a case of wrongful dismissal against Howard.
b) Civil Servants have held responsibility for departmental errors despite anonymity.
- EXAMPLE. Secretary for Transport, Patrick McLoughlin, admitted that mistakes had been made after awarding franchises to companies to run the West Coast Main Line in 2012. 3 civil servants were suspended. - ‘Golden Rule’
a) Alistair Campbell, as Tony Blair’s press secretary, believed to have a ‘golden rule’ that a minister would have to resign if at the centre of a media storm for a given length of time.
8
Q
What is Collective Ministerial Responsibility alongside EXAMPLES?
A
COLLECTIVE MINISTERIAL RESPONSIBILITY
- All members of the government must publicly support the government and should not disclose the contents of private ministerial discussions.
- Members must support agreed policies even if in private they are critical of them to maintain unity and represent strength.
- If a minister fails to bring themselves to publicly agree with government policy or the way in which government is being run, they must resign and return to the backbenches (often the end of their political career).
- If the administration is defeated on a vote of no confidence, this convention also states that all members of the government must resign.
- High-profile Ministerial Resignations over Collective Responsibility
a) EXAMPLE. Peter Thorneycroft, Chancellor of the Exchequer 1958.
- Publicly resigned from the Macmillan government because he could not support what he regarded as excessive public spending of the government.
- 2 other treasury ministers, Enoch Powell and Nigel Birch resigned with him.
b) EXAMPLE. Geoffrey Howe, Leader of the House of Commons and Deputy Prime Minister, 1990.
- Pro-European resigned 2 days after Thatcher delivered her “NO, NO, NO” speech against European federalism.
- Felt that he could no longer support an increasingly eurosceptic PM.
- Prompted Michael Heseltine’s leadership challenge that month and her later resignation.
c) EXAMPLE. Robin Cook, Leader of the House of Commons, 2003.
- Resigned over its preparations for war against Iraq.
- Cook was unconvinced that Saddam Hussein was a threat to the UK’s national interests and voted against the government with military action.
d) EXAMPLE. Clare Short, Secretary of State for International Development, 2003.
- Disagreed profoundly with the Government but stuck with it initially before resigning eventually.
e) EXAMPLE. Iain Duncan Smith, Work and Pensions Secretary, 2016.
- Resigned as he could not accept cuts to disability benefits that the treasury was suggesting.
- From growing resentment to George Osbourne and his stance for further cuts with a self-inflicted austerity programme.
f) EXAMPLE. Sajid Javid, Chancellor of the Exchequer, 2020.
- Prime Minister’s Chief Special Adviser Dominic Cummings relieved one of Chancellor Javid’s aides, Sonia Khan, of her employment, without Javid’s permission and without informing him in August 2019.
- Johnson had offered to keep his position on the condition that he fires all of his advisers at the Treasury, to be replaced with individuals selected by 10 Downing Street. Upon resigning, Javid told the Press Association that “no self-respecting minister would accept those terms”. - Dissatisfaction with government policy is often ‘leaked’
a) EXAMPLE. John Major distrusted his cabinet with their eurosceptic ideologies.
- He was caught talking to journalist Michael Brunson about “those bastards”. - The threat of removal
a) EXAMPLE. In 1974, 3 members of Harold Wilson’s cabinet (Tony Benn, Judith Hart and Joan Lestor) backed a resolution condemning the government’s decision to agree to joint UK/South Africa naval exercises.
- Wilson threatened for their resignation, yet none did. - Coalition Agreement
a) Areas not covered in this agreement (compromised between manifestos), collective ministerial responsibility would not operate.
- EXAMPLE. Trident renewal and the construction of new power stations, which the Lib Dems had campaigned against were not apart of this agreement.
- EXAMPLE. The Coalition was conflicted over the AV referendum in 2011 and military response following President’s Assad’s use of chemical weapons.
b) EXAMPLE. Baroness Warsi, Minister of State for Faith and Communities, 2014 resigned citing her disagreement with the Government’s policy on the Israel–Gaza conflict in August 2014. - Confliction on the debate of Europe
a) In 1975, Harold Wilson abandoned collective ministerial responsibility on membership of the EEC as his cabinet was so divided.
- EXAMPLE. Eurosceptic Tony Benn and pro-European Roy Jenkins debated the issue on TV.
b) David Cameron faced similar resistance from Chris Grayling and Michael Gove.
- If there was ministerial responsibility then there would have been multiple resignations from Iain Duncan Smith (Work and Pensions) and Theresa Villiers (Northern Ireland).
c) EXAMPLE. Resignations from the Brexit Secretary, David Davis and Foreign Secretary, Boris Johnson in 2018.
- Boris Johnson was critical of Theresa May’s Brexit plan and Chequers proposal, complaining that it was not the Brexit people voted for.
- May’s reliance on Brexit MPs made it difficult to sack Boris as such a high-profile supporter of Brexit.
- David Davis complained that it was a “compromise too far”.
d) EXAMPLE. 3 Governmental ministers (Amber Rudd, David Gauke and Greg Clark) said they would defy the government and vote reject a no-deal Brexit.
- When a motion was tabled, 13 government ministers defied collective ministerial responsibility and their whips by abstaining.
9
Q
What are the main roles of the Cabinet?
A
MAIN ROLES OF THE CABINET
- Approving executive decisions
a) The core function of the cabinet is to approve decisions with the seal of government policy.
- Important in maintaining the unity of the government.
- The cabinet provides the key forum in which the government policies are legitimised. - Determine key issues of policy
a) EXAMPLE. In 1976, James Callaghan allowed the cabinet to freely debate whether or not to accept a loan from the IMF with its accompanying demands for stringent cuts in public spending.
- All sides were given the opportunity to present their cases on the understanding that at the end of the process a consensus would be reached which would be government policy.
- Chancellor of the Exchequer, Denis Healey argued that there was no alternative to the loan.
- Tony Benn opposed the bill.
b) EXAMPLE. In 2018, May summoned the cabinet to Chequers, the PMs country retreat, in order to determine what the government’s bargaining position would be in the final stages of Brexit. - Decide how the government will present and execute business
a) If controversial legislation is going to be introduced into Parliament, the cabinet will need to discuss how it is best presented and the minister will need to know when they should be available on the front benches to enthusiastically support it.
- The Chief Whip will also explain whether there is likely to be a sufficient government majority if a bill is especially contentious and so the cabinet may debate any concessions they may need to make in order to win parliamentary support. - If a dispute between 2 departments of the state is proving impossible to resolve, then it may be brought before the cabinet to resolve.
a) Particularly significant when departmental conflicts had to be resolved in the coalition.
b) EXAMPLE. The Westland Affair 1986
- During 1985/1986, the Department of State for Trade and Industry and the Department for Defence clashed over whether a British firm, Westland helicopters should be taken over by an American or European bid.
- The defence secretary, Michael Heseltine, complained to Thatcher’s obvious bias towards American business as undermining the cabinet debate and spectacularly resigned during a meeting of the cabinet in 1986. - PM may appoint cabinet Committees to develop and implement specific policy.
a) An effective way of enhancing PM authority, since the PM determines the membership and decide the number and remit of the committee.
- EXAMPLE. Theresa May took the chair of the European Union Exit and Trade Committee and the National Security Council.
- The decisions of cabinet committees possess the same legitimacy as decisions of the full cabinet.
10
Q
What factors affect the Prime Minister’s selection of ministers for the Cabinet?
A
SELECTION OF MINISTERS FOR THE CABINET
- Importance of including individuals with ability and experience
a) PM has a vast pool of talent reflecting many backgrounds and expertise.
- EXAMPLE. Gordon Brown and George Osborne served as substantial apprenticeships as shadow chancellor before taking over the Treasury.
b) There are a large number of ‘natural backbenchers’, who do not have the aptitude for high office, or whose views place them too far out the mainstream to make them acceptable for a ministerial position.
c) Ability as an administrator and communicator is more important than detailed knowledge of a particular policy area.
- Civil servants supply an incoming minister with necessary specialist support. - Establishing a Prime Minister’s authority
a) An incoming PM, will want to a personal stamp of authority on the government, perhaps as distancing to their predecessor.
- EXAMPLE. Theresa May wanted to remove the ‘Notting Hill’ public school ‘chumocracy’ that David Cameron cultivated, sacking George Osborne as Chancellor of the Exchequer in order to make her administration less elitist.
b) Not always radical.
- EXAMPLE. John Major did not remove many ministers until after he gained greater authority following the 1992 general election. - Rewarding loyalty and including key allies
a) Ambition to progress policy with committed members.
- EXAMPLE. Tony Blair advanced the career of Labour modernisers after his second landslide in 2001, such as Alan Johnson (Education), Alan Milburn (Health) and David Blunkett (Home Secretary) in order to provide his government with continued reforming momentum.
b) Loyalist members are rewarded from the shadow positions.
- EXAMPLE. Thatcher relied on the advice and support of William Whitelaw (home secretary) while she advanced to key position politicians such as Norman Tebbit (Employment) and Cecil Parkinson (Party Chairman), who loyally shared her political views.
- EXAMPLE. Theresa May retained Chris Grayling as transport minister despite the Railway timetable change and vote of no-confidence in 2018 with 305–285 in Grayling’s favour. He also awarded £13.8m to British firm Seaborne Freight, to provide additional cross-channel freight capacity in case of a “no-deal” Brexit with it later emerging that Seaborne Freight had never run a ferry service and owned no ships in 2019. - Removing the threat of potential rivals and rebellions
a) Agreements between rival which limits PM’s freedom of management.
- EXAMPLE. Tony Blair appointed Gordon Brown as Chancellor of the Exchequer, given his grasp of economics and the agreement reached in the Granita restaurant in 1994 to share the roles.
b) Appointment of rivals as it binds them to collective ministerial responsibility so they cannot publicly criticise the government, safer having him inside government than outside.
- EXAMPLE. John Major retained Douglas Hurd as Foreign Secretary in 1990 and Micheal Hesseltine as deputy PM despite them challenging Major on leadership.
- EXAMPLE. Harold Wilson knew that George Brown, who he had defeated in the party leadership contest, was rated higher than him by many Labour supporters, leading him to appoint him as Deputy Prime Minister.
- EXAMPLE. Theresa May ignored Boris Johnson’s was kept as Foreign Secretary despite his failings with Nazanin Zaghari-Ratcliffe in Iran and worsening her position. - Maintaining a balance between different factions within the government party
a) In order to maintain party unity, it is essential to find ministerial positions for those with differing ideological views.
- EXAMPLE. Tony Blair included John Prescott as Deputy PM from 1997 to 2007 as he was from the working-class left of Labour (not entirely abandoning its socialist ideology).
- EXAMPLE. Thatcher appointed one-nation conservatives in her cabinet, such as Douglas Hurd, in 1987 to make sure that she did not alienate her government.
- EXAMPLE. Brexiteers were appointed to May’s government such as Boris Johnson and Liam Fox alongside remainers such as Amber Rudd and Phillip Hammond.
b) Exceptional circumstances of the 2010 coalition where 5/22 ministerial posts were awarded to the Liberal Democrats. - Meeting expectations of diversity
a) It has been expected to has ministers of diverse backgrounds at all level of ministerial roles.
- EXAMPLE. John Major faced adverse comments for including no women in his first cabinet in 1990.
- EXAMPLE. Margaret Beckett (Foreign Secretary) was the first women to hold one of the 3 most senior posts under the PM in 2006.
- EXAMPLE. Sajid Javid was the first British-Asian ethnic-minority to be appointed Chancellor in 2019.
11
Q
What is the difference between Cabinet Government and Prime-ministerial Government?
A
DIFFERENCE BETWEEN CABINET AND PRIME-MINISTERIAL GOVERNMENT
- Cabinet Government
- A type of government in which the cabinet plays a key role in the development of policy. It provides a direct contrast to the Prime-ministerial model of government.
a) Composed of influential members, many of which are influential with independent authority to challenge a PM.
- EXAMPLE. In 2018, Jeremy Hunt refused Theresa May’s attempt to move him from the Department of Health and this led to him expanding within this role as Health and Social Care secretary.
b) Often based on the personality of the PM and the political circumstances.
- EXAMPLE. John Major had a 21 seat majority in 1992, had to pursue party unity following growing divisions. - Prime-ministerial Government
- A model of government in which the PM is dominant and the cabinet is relegated to a subordinate decision making role.
a) The PM’s Private Office has provided an enhanced engine for the government.
- EXAMPLE. In 1974, on his return to the office, Harold Wilson set up the Policy Unit at Downing Street to provide him with support and advice in developing political strategy.
b) EXAMPLE. Tony Blair introduced initiatives to increase control from the centre.
- The position of Chief of Staff (Jonathan Powell) was established to coordinate government policy. Powell explained that his appointment demonstrated a change from a ‘feudal system of barons to a more Napoleonic system’.
- The PMs Strategy Unit and PMs Delivery Unit further challenged the autonomy of Cabinet Members by setting their departments targets and monitoring their performance, yet Cameron abolished the roles due to micro-management fears instead strengthing the Policy and Implementation Unit to coordinate government.
- The Press Office under Alistair Cambell became more prominent, ensuring that Downing Street had control over how news stories were presented.
12
Q
To what extent does the Cabinet still play a dominant role in the British Government?
A
CABINETS DOMINANT ROLE IN THE GOVERNMENT
- Cabinet does play a central role in the Government.
a) During Political crises, a PM will need to discuss all the options open to them with the cabinet since the cabinet contains the accumulated wisdom of the Government.
- EXAMPLE. Following the Argentinean invasion of the Falklands in April 1982, Thatcher summoned an emergency meeting of the cabinet to discuss all the diplomatic and military options open to the government. This was extended into a ‘war cabinet’ of key ministers.
b) EXAMPLE. In April 2018, May called an urgent meeting to discuss a military response to the Syrian government’s presumed use of chemical weapons.
- It was important that she knew she could rely on the support of the cabinet because she was not intending to consult the Commons.
c) When there is a controversial issue to be resolved, the cabinet agreement is vital in order to ensure that the government is united and legitimise the decision.
- EXAMPLE. In 1976, Callaghan’s cabinet thoroughly discussed the IMF loan, while Major’s cabinet met in emergency sessions during the Black Wednesday economic crisis 1992.
d) EXAMPLE. In 2018, May summoned the whole cabinet to Chequers in order to to achieve a united approach to the sort of Brexit that the government would pursue.
e) On some occasions, the cabinet can challenge the authority of the PM.
- EXAMPLE. In 1969, a cabinet revolt stopped Harold Wilson from placing legal restraints on growing trade union power when it rejected the White Paper; ‘In place of Strife’.
f) EXAMPLE. In 1990, the failure of the cabinet to offer Thatcher its full support during Hesseltine’s leadership challenge prompted her resignation. - Cabinet does not play a central role in the Government
a) PM manipulates the agenda and positions, holding unchallengeable power to dismiss or demote ministers who disagree.
- EXAMPLE. Although Macmillan presented an image of calm unflappability, he had a clear political agenda that he wanted to achieve. In 6 years he appointed 4 Chancellors of the Exchequers, closely monitoring their approach to economic policy. On monitoring his last Chancellor, Reginald Maudling, he noted that he adopted his views in 1962.
b) Non elected individuals assert unprecedented influence over governmental policy.
- EXAMPLE. Harold Wilson made decisions through a small body of core advisers in his Downing Street flat. Known as the Kitchen Cabinet and included ket allies such as his secretary Marcia Williams, press secretary Joe Haines and political adviser Bernard Donoughue.
- EXAMPLE. Edward Heath saw himself as an efficient moderniser and so made key decisions with trusted advisers such as cabinet secretary Sir Robert Armstrong his political secretary, Douglas Hurd.
c) Media presence encourages them to present themselves as a leader rather than collective decision-makers.
- EXAMPLE. Thatcher had a clear political vision of her intentions in her premiership, pushing issues such as the poll tax through the cabinet with insufficient discussion. Discouraged discussion in the Westland crisis also highlighting her imperious and arrogant approach to cabinet government.
d) Decisions are commonly taken by Cabinet committees or in small groups/bilateral meetings, with the cabinet being a ‘stamp of approval’.
- EXAMPLE. Tony Blair made decisions quickly and was impatient with long discussions. Discouraged cabinet discussions, preferring to have already made key decisions with ministers in bilateral meetings (referred to as ‘Sofa Government’).
- EXAMPLE. Blair/Brown decision to hand control of interest rates to the Bank of England.
13
Q
What factors affect the relationship between the Prime Minister and Cabinet?
A
FACTORS AFFECTING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN THE PM AND CABINET
- Management Skills of the PM
a) Determined and astute PMs will exploit the elastic nature of the office to assert control over the cabinet.
- Removing poor performers and to bring in new blood, marginalising opponents.
b) Management should be considered with care
- EXAMPLE. Thatcher dominated her cabinet, alienating her supporters and senior colleagues which undermined her position. Deputy PM Geoffrey Howe resigning led to Michael Hesseltine triggering a leadership challenge.
c) Personality and c - The PMs ability to set the agenda
a) Decisions are rarely taken in the cabinet by holding a vote.
- The views of the most senior figures command more weight.
b) They can keep certain items off the agenda of cabinet meetings.
- EXAMPLE. Harold Wilson refused to discuss the devaluation of the pound between 1964 - 1967, despite calls from ministers to discuss it in the cabinet. - The use of Cabinet Committees and informal groups to take decisions
a) Cabinet Committee decisions are later ratified by the full cabinet.
- The PM determines the membership and chair of these committees.
- EXAMPLE. Boris Johnson is the current chair of 4 committees: EU Exit Strategy, EU Exit, Economy and Trade, Domestic Affairs and the Union, National Security Council in 2020.
b) Bilateral meetings are also used.
- EXAMPLE. The market-sensitive decision to place the management of interest rates in the hands of the Bank of England was taken by Tony Blair and Gordon Brown within days of their 1997 victory.
- EXAMPLE. Under the coalition, there was ‘the Quad’ = David Cameron, George Osborne, Nick Clegg and Danny Alexander (Chief Treasury Secretary). - The development of the PM’s Office and the Cabinet Office
a) Harold Wilson creating the Policy Unit in 1974 allowed the PM to gain an overview and drive policy across departments.
- EXAMPLE. Under Blair, there was co-operation between these 2 offices to support the implementation of the policy.
b) Cameron created the Policy and Implementation Unit in 2011.
c) The Press Office similarly worked closely under the PM.
- Blair enhanced it with the creation of the Communications adn Strategy Directorate. - The impact of the wider political and economic situation
a) Degree to which the PM dominates the cabinet is affected by a variety of external pressures.
- A large and unified Parliamentary majority (Blair 1997) enables ascendancy rather than a precarious minority government.
b) Personal popularity
- EXAMPLE. Thatcher’s approval rating grew after the 1982 Falkland’s War from 16% in 1981 to 59% in 1982. Her approval rating was 20% in 1990 with the introduction of the Poll Tax.
14
Q
What factor affect the leadership style of the Prime Minister?
A
FACTORS AFFECTING THE LEADERSHIP STYLE OF THE PRIME MINISTER
- Personality (political, personal, social skills)
- Size of majority in the House of Commons
- The situation of government (coalition, minority, confidence and supply)
- Personal popularity in the polls
- Whether they have a ‘rival’ in cabinet
15
Q
To what extent did the Coalition Government (2010 - 2015) strengthen David Cameron as Prime Minister?
A
COALITION STRENGTHENING DAVID CAMERON AS PM
- Yes
a) As David Cameron won 306 seats in 2010 and needed 326 seats to form a majority administration, the support of the 57 Liberal Democrat MPs provided him with the Parliamentary votes he needed to form a stable government.
b) The Coalition Agreement enabled Cameron to fulfil most of his manifesto commitments, especially his austerity proposals to reduce public spending.
c) Collective ministerial responsibility would apply to all areas of policy agreed in the Coalition agreement.
d) In spite of differences between the 2 parties, the Coalition lasted 5 years, helped by the passing of the Fixed Term Parliaments Act 2011, which set the date for the 2015 election. - No
a) As a result of the Coalition agreement, Cameron had to give cabinet positions to 5 Lib Dems, including Nick Clegg as deputy prime minister.
b) Cameron had to agree to a referendum on the Additional Vote as part of the Coalition Agreement. His plans to redraw Parliamentary boundaries were also scuppered by the Lib Dem opposition.
c) As no party outright won the general election, the Lords suspended the Sailsbury Convention so that it could oppose measures in the governing parties’ manifestos.
d) In order to ensure the effective functioning of the cabinet, the quad was established, in which agreement on core policies first had to be agreed by Cameron, Osborne, Clegg and Danny Alexander.
