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Question 1

6 Dimensions of Wellbeing

Answer 1

Physical: .
* Mental/Emotional
* Social
* Environmental
* Occupational
* Spiritual

Question 2

Subjective Wellbeing

Answer 2

The individual’s personal
assessment of their own life, including happiness, life
satisfaction, and positive emotions.

Question 3

Objective Wellbeing

Answer 3

Measurable indicators such as
physical health, income, and social relationships that
contribute to overall wellbeing.

Question 4

The Humanitarian Reform

Answer 4

• 1950s-1970s: Hallmarked
  by changing views of
  health services.
• Diagnostic and Statistical
  Manual of Mental
  Disorders (DSM-I)
  published in 1952.
• Reform for
  deinstitutionalization and
  focus on community
  health care.
• Introduction of the
  biopsychosocial model.

Question 5

Psychosomatic Medicine

Answer 5

• The psychoanalytic school of
  thought gives birth on psychosomatic medicine (early 1900s).
• Theory was that patterns of
  personality are linked with specific illnesses.
• While there is good, current
  evidence that personality factors have been linked to risk for coronary heart disease
• Limitations:
• Flawed methods: Studies supporting the model might not be rigorous enough.
• Overemphasis on personality: The model focuses too much on personality types as the cause of health issues.
• Multifactorial nature of health: It ignores the complex interplay of various factors affecting health, not just personality.
• Medicalizing social problems: It labels social or psychological problems as medical conditions:

Question 5

The Biomedical Model

Answer 5

• Traditional view of western medicine.
• Health = Absence of disease.
• Disease is conceptualized exclusively as a biological
  process as a result of exposure to a specific pathogen or genetic abnormalities or injury.
• Body is passive and an affliction thereof has no
  connection with psychological and social processes.
• Strength: Removing the pathogen (with medicine or surgery) restores health i.e., compatible model for
  preventing and treating infectious
  diseases leading to massive
  mortality reduction.
• Limitation: Cannot account for our health status alone.
  i.e Conversion hysteria (where unconscious conflicts were said to produce physical
  imbalances that symbolize repressed psychological conflicts.

Question 6

The Biopsychosocial Model

Answer 6

• Proposed by Engel (1977)
• Health and illness have
  multiple aetiologies, effects,
  and treatment options.
• Relies on simultaneous
  “levels of analysis” to
  consider both nature and
  nurture perspectives of
  health and illness.
• Strength: Views health as a positive condition (not just the
  absence of disease).
• Limitation: may be impractical for practitioners to
  address ALL BPS factors and trying to do so may delay
  or confuse care options.

Question 7

THE BIOLOGICAL LEVEL

Answer 7

• genetic factors (e.g., eye colour, height)
• the physiological nervous-system (e.g., the brain, spinal
  cord and complex network of nerve cells), and
• the endocrine system (e.g., adrenal glands responsible
  for hormone production) and
• all other factors that can be physically determined (e.g.,
  age).

Question 7

THE SOCIAL/ENVIRONMENTAL/CULTURAL LEVEL

Answer 7

• “social” aspects (e.g., family relationships or culture),
• the impact of situational events (e.g., exams or natural
  disasters like earthquakes),
• or external stimuli (e.g., heat, cold, noise)

Question 8

THE PSYCHOLOGICAL LEVEL

Answer 8

• The different perspectives of psychology (e.g.,
  Behavioural perspective, Cognitive perspective) all
  provide examples of different psychological factors that
  should be considered as part of the psychological level of
  analysis.
• It includes all personal thoughts, personal beliefs and
  values, feelings and actions.

Question 9

Challenges in Health & Wellbeing

Answer 9

1. Deinstitutionalisation (the movement away from
   inpatient treatment in mental hospitals to more community-based treatment).
2. Most documented health disparities (health outcome
   differences that are linked with social, political,
   economic, and/or environmental disadvantages) are related to prejudice re the race/ethnicity/culture of the
   user.
3. Educational and socioeconomic disparities also play a large role in health disparities globally
4. Limited interdisciplinary collaboration between health
   practitioners.
5. Psychologists/counsellors need to justify the cost of
   their services more so than others.
6. Rising healthcare costs, outpacing inflation in some cases, further complicate health disparities.

Question 10

Physiognomy

Answer 10

the attempt to read personality from
facial features and expression,

Question 10

Eminence-based practice

Answer 10

• It identifies valuable interventions that will eventually be backed by research.
• People expect treatments based on science, not personal beliefs.
• Relying on unproven methods can lead to mistakes and damage trust with patients.

Question 10

Evidence-based practice (EBP)

Answer 10

• Improve quality, effectiveness, and appropriateness of treatment.
• Effective treatments lead to better adherence, recovery, and maintenance of health.
• Reduce variations in practices across regions and ensure knowledge translates to real-world care.
• Provides evidence for best use of resources and justifies coverage for effective treatments.
• Enables shared decision-making with patients.
• Encourages continuous learning for healthcare providers to deliver the best care.

Question 11

Phrenology

Answer 11

personality traits are
represented by specific areas of the brain and the size
of these areas determines the degree of the corresponding skill or trait

Question 12

The “Practice” Part of EBP

Answer 12

1. Accountability: practitioners have the highest degree of legal
   accountability because they hold client welfare in their hands
   and so must use evidence to make best practice decisions
2. Advocacy: Championing their clients, using best evidence to
   support their case
3. Altruism: Behaviour change is difficult to achieve so always
   seek to do the best possible for your clients by using evidence
   that improves outcomes.
4. Autonomy: Exercising independent professional judgement
   to best serve their clients’ needs

Question 13

Individual Psychology

Answer 13

Cognitive biases are threats to critical thinking
* We look for evidence that confirms our beliefs and
discount evidence that discredits it (confirmation bias)
* We evaluate situations from our own perspective
without considering the other side (‘my side’ bias)
* We are drawn to our emotional responses and neglect
objective data (attentional bias)
* We are overly influenced by one past reference or
information (anchoring or insufficient adjustment bias)
* We’re influenced more by a vivid anecdote than by
statistics
* We are overconfident about how much we know
* And we’re certain that we’re not affected by biases the
way others are!

Question 14

Levels of Evidence

Answer 14

1. Expert Opinion
2. Case study/report (n=1 study)
3. Case series (or time series)/Before and After study
4. Case-control study
5. Cohort study
6. Non-randomised Control Trial
7. Randomised Control Trial (RCT)
8. Systematic Review (SR)
9. Meta-analysis (MA):

Question 14

Research Questions

Answer 14

• Intervention: Does a treatment work?
• Diagnosis: Does a test detect a condition?
• Prognosis: What is the outcome of a condition?
• Aetiology: What is the cause of a condition?
• Epidemiology: What is the trend of risk?
• Experiences: How do people feel about/experience a
  condition?

Question 15

Dual Purpose of the Alliance

Answer 15

1. Help others manage their problems more effectively
   and develop unused/underused opportunities to cope
   more fully
2. Facilitate the empowerment of others to become more
   effective self-helpers in the future

Question 15

The placebo effect

Answer 15

*impact people psychologically and physically
by altering neurotransmitters, hormones, and endorphins
* Effect exists for nearly every type of intervention, not
just pills
Factors that increase the placebo effect:
* Big pills work better than smaller pills
* Colored pills work better than white pills
* Capsules work better than tablets
* Placebos labelled with brand names work better than
generic labels
* More expensive treatments work better than less
expensive ones

Question 16

The Skilled Helper Model

Answer 16

Egan (1990’s) focus on problem management and change in others
- Stage I: What is your current scenario? This is the
exploration stage
- Stage II: What is your preferred scenario? This is the
challenges stage)
- Stage III: What are the option for you getting there?
This is the action stage
- Stage IV: What specific actions are you committing
to? This is the action stage

Question 17

Holism

Answer 17

• ‘Western’ perspectives may fail to fully integrate the
  biological, psychosocial, cultural, environmental, and
  transpersonal aspects of health and wellbeing
• Other cultural philosophies may not differentiate
  between physical and mental health/illness but see illhealth as affecting the “whole” human being

Question 18

Individualism vs. Collectivism

Answer 18

• The high value that the ‘west’ places on the individual is
  not universal
• Social factors play an important role in aetiology,
  maintenance, and treatment/cure of illness in other cultures