2.2 changing approach to human understanding Flashcards
Francis Bacon and the empirical scientific approach
bacons background
- enrolled at trinity college, cambridge at the age of 12
- recognised as an outstanding intellectual in his teens
- became a barrister in 1582
- became an MP in 1584
- rose to being a member of the privy council
Bacon
Inductive over deductive reasoning: definitions
- inductive: based on evidence. Allows for an original hypothesis to be proven wrong
- deductive: conclusion is made on something that is already known or assumed. One rule applies to many instances;
bacon focussed on inductive and the experimental method
bacon
what did Bacon believe about the scientific method? 3 main points
data, rejecting, observation
- Scientific discovery was best aided by accumulating as much data about the subject as posssible
- his method involved rejecting pre-concieved ideas
- methodical observation of facts was the best way to understand
bacon
when was his work more widely read?
- not widely implemented before 1640
- his work was emulated as a result of the civil war and changing societal attitudes
- best evidence is in the founding of the Royal Society, 40 years after his death
bacon
Adopting bacons thinking to understand religion: Lord Falkland and his estate
- he opened his house and estate at Great Tew in Oxfordshire to learned thinkers, who rationally questioned problems faced by the church, such as the agreed date for the end of the world
bacon
What did Falkland’s group conclude? contradictions in the Bible? way of worship?
- the church would benefit from religous toleration
- a rational interpretation of the Bible shows it containes many contradictions that will be interpreted differently by different people
- because of this, no single denomination has the right to dictate the way people worship
- this idea became popular during the Civil War 1642-1646
the importance of inductive reasoning
how was bacon’s reasoning carried out?
- ‘tables of instances’ where all information about a subject would be recorded, and a theory would emerge when all information had been collected
the importance of inductive reasoning
example of bacon concluding from his tables of instances?
- heat is a form of motion came from the table of instances
bacon and magic
what did bacon believe about magic? what did his method mean for a belief in magic?
- he preserved a belief in magic
- as long as conclusions were based on observations in nature
- By setting down observed facts about an object of study in ‘tables of instances’ Bacon was dismissing the distinction between magical and rational qualities many scientists were starting to make.
influence of Bacon
Of the proficience and Advancement of Learning, Divine, and Human’ 1605: what did it explain about Bacons way of thinking?
- empirical knowlede is teh most superior form
- if men begin with doubts but observe facts, they will end with certainties.
influence of Bacon
Instauratio Magna, and Novum Organum 1620: what does Bacon argue? why does it become importnat
- the first part Instauratio Magna was never completed
- second and more influential part Novum Organum (the new instrument) argued for Bacons experimental method
- it becomes an important guidebook for the men who founded the Royal Society
Bacons infuence
The New Atlantis 1626: what did Bacon describe?
Bacon describes a utopian state where scientific knowledge is exploited and values
the experiment that killed Francis Bacon
What was the experiment that killed Francis Bacon
- he was travelling from central london to highgate in cold weather
- John Aubrey wrote he was inspired to carry out an experiment to see if snow preserved meat
- bacon bought a fowl and stuffed it with snow
- he caught pneumonia and died a few days later
Gresham college
how was gresham college founded? (the invisible college)
- a group of intellectuals in 1645 formed the ‘invisible college’, a collective who shared an interest in experiemtns and had connections to gresham college in London, which had been founded in 1597
- they would meet after the astronomy lecture at Gresham, and this would go on to form the royal society
Gresham College
origins of the royal society: what was the Royal Exchange and Sir Thomas Gresham’s role in it?
- Sir Thomas Gresham died in 1579
- The Royak Exchange was opened in Gresham in 1571 and gave brokers space to do deals
- In his will, he gave his estate to the London authorities in return for them supporting the Royal Exchange seven professors, who were to live in his mansion house and give lectures on their facilities of law, divinity, music, physics, geometry, rhetoric, and astronomy
Gresham College
opening of Gresham college: what was the aim?
- to provide a permanent organisation that would research mathematical sciences
- studying medicine had been established at Oxford and Cambridge in the early 16th century
Gresham College
what did Gresham do for astronomy?
- established them as recognised professorships in 1619 (in oxford, but the people chosen to fill these vacancies were chosen from gresham)
gresham college
achievements attributed to those involved in Grehsm college before the initial meetings in 1645
Henry Briggs
- popularised the use of logarithms
gresham college
william bedwell
involved in Gresham college - achievements
translated a number of mathematical works into English and invented a new type of ruler for carrying out geometric calculations
gresham college
Edmund Gunter
- became professor of astronomy in 1619
- worked closely with a group of naval officials to improve navigation
the royal society
why was the royal charter given so quickly to the royal society?
- charles II’s interest in science
- established in 1662
the royal society
membership of the royal society, key figures
JL, SP, JD, EoS
- John Locke
- Samuel Pepys
- John Dryden
- Earl of Sandwich
the royal society
the early royal society - organisation + first few years of research?
- divided into a number of committees responsible for different areas of study
- the first few years were marked by impressive and in depth research in areas other than science, including an investigation into the best ways to improve the english language
- most early experiments used Bacons method
the royal society
when was it dedicated purely to science
- 1684
the royal society
isaac newton and universities with the royal society
- isaac newton consulted his theory of gravity with the royal society, and he was president for 24 years
- universities appeard to be falling behind (oxford and cambridge)
- many would attend for status rathr than a serious desire to learn
the royal society
what do historians think about the royal society?
- somje think it was not particularly important, as it was simply a channel for scientists to air their discoveries
- but its baconian aim made it extremely well respected
the royal society
what did the society agree on?
- research would be used for public good
- not for suiting the interests of intellectuals
the royal society
involvement of foreign scholars: Marcello Malpighi + the French Royal Academy of Sciences
- they allowed foreign scholars to be involved from 1665
- Marcello Malpighi wrote to the society after he observed the capillary action in the lungs of frogs. this was the missing link to William Harveys theory of blood circulation
- discoveries were presented in philosophical transactions
- 1666 the French Royal Academy of sciences was established and the Prussian Academy of sciences was founded in Berlin in 1700
the royal society
the royal societys funding? How did the society show its aim to do good?
- endowments from wealthy supporters as well as gifts from wealthy men across Europe
- the aim to carry out good was achieved through public demonstrations and public anatomy lessons
the royal society
increasing beliefs around science helped by the royal society
- science was no longer viewed with suspicion by the early 18th century
- society gave a boost to the increasing belief in europe that humans could progress without divine assistance
- contributed to the aims of the enlightenment
the royal society and magic
historians beliefs about the societys role in decreasing scepticism + counter (TS 1667)
- historians including Henry lyons have claimed the royal society undermined a belief in witchcraft through critical analysis
- BUT: ‘The first History of the Society by Thomas Sprat in 1667 claimed astrologers only served to decieve people and alchemists were fraudulent
- also, John Webster’s The Displaying of Supposed Witchcraft 1677 was dedicated to the society
the royal society and magic
joseph glanvill’s involvement in the royal society
from 1666
- made much of his name as a member
- he argued for the existence of witches
- but the society had no time for his suggestion that it should be studied
the royal society and magic
early members of the royal society and areas of study
- many early members studied magical areas such as astrology or alchemy
- Eg. Isaac Newton, Robert Boyle, Johnz Aubrey and Thomas Henshaw
- a number of investigations relating to alchemy can be found in early edicitions of Physical Transactions
the royal society and magic
1666: Irish healer Valentine Greatrakes and Robert Boyle
- he apparently cured people of disease by laying his hands on them
- robert Boyle took interest, recording Greatrakes achievements in a log + inviting other members of the society
- the society itself took no nterest, and the minutes of its meetings in 1666 only show discussions of gravity, friction, medicine, and planets
thomas hobbes :0
what did Hobbes champion (reasoning)
deductiveq
thomas hobbes
thomas hobbes career
- Hobbes was born in 1588
- attended oxford university
- tutored the landed elite
- travelled. throughout Europe
- for a time, was secretary to Francis Bacon
thomas hobbes
royalist sympathies and the Civil War?
- when it broke out he feared he would be targetted in 1642
- he fleed
- While in paris, he had worked as a tutor to young Charles Ii, and began to formulate his most important political ideas.
thomas hobbes
Leviathan 1651
- advocated for a strong government in clear reaction to the execution of Charles I and a republican rule
thomas hobbes
2 other philosophical works published in the 1650s?
- De Corpore (on the body) 1655
- De Homine (on Man) 1658
deductive reasoning
thomas Hobbes travels + philosophers he met
- he travelled in the 1630s and 1640s
- he met a number of philosophers, including Descartes, who shared the same opinion on reasoning
deductive reasonjing
why inductive reasoning inadequate for Hobbes?
- too experimental
- never provides irrefutable knowledge
- an element of doubt can always exist when some observed facts cannot be explained
deductive reasoning
Hobbes and Euclid’s Elements + pythagorean theorem
- greek mathematician Euclid’s Elements he read
- he claimed Pythagorean theorem was impossible until he read Euclid’s explanation as he could see his justification was based on deductive reasoning and was satisified
deductive reasoning
example Hobbes gives of deductive reasoning
man, creature, body
- every man is a living creature
- every creature is a body
- therefore, every man is a body
deductive reasoning
how did Hobbes use deductive reasoning to defend a powerful monarchy?
- all men are born bad
- Nero was a bad (roman) emperor
- therefore, Nero was a bad emperor because he was born bad, not because of the system he was placed in charge of
deductive reasoning
Hobbes overall argument: what creates tyrannical, self-seeking politicans?
- not the system, but the politicians themselves
- all men are born flawed
- he ignored the logical view that a powerful monarchy could result in negative actions
deductive reasoning
how did Hobbes accept/reject theory?
- if the original promise and the concluding premise seem to be true, then they are deductively valid
- another premise; such as the idea that god rules the university alone, and appoints monarchs, so monarchs should be allowed to rule alone, is not deductively valid because there are examples from history to show absolute monarchs can abuse powers
Hobbes, materialism, and magic
Hobbes belief in materialism and therefore rejection of magic
- Hobbes believed everything was created by matter, and all events are a result of matter acting on matter
- therefore, magic was impossible because it was not founded on matter
- concepts such as the soul and the existence of angels can be questioned
Hobbes, materialism, and magic
hobbes influence according to historians
- historuans argued his materialism goes some way to explaining why belief in witchcraft declined after 1660
- according to Hobbes, unusual phenomena that had been observed had never been proven to go against the law of nature
- cases of posession were a result of madness
Hobbes, materialism, and magic
however, what did he not deny? when did his ideas become fashionable?
- he did not deny there could be spirits that are too fine to be seen by humans
- his ideas became fashionable in the early 18th c. when the final cases of witchcraft were being investigated
- many of the sceptic writers approached witchcraft with a rational mindset influenced by Hobbes.
John Locke and hias Essay Concerning Human Understanding 1690
What was John Locke generally in favour of? what was his Essay famous for discussing?
- Locke was generally an opponent of the absolute monarchy in favour of individual rights and liberties
- he discussed human knowledge and understanding in his Essay
Locke’s career
Lockes father and studying at Oxford
- Locke’s father was a puritan who fought for parliament during the Civil War
- he also studied at Oxford, and spent much time learning about ancient philosophy which he felt was inadeuate in explaining the problems of the age
Locke’s career
Earl of Shaftesbury and patronage
- Shaftesbury was a prominent founder of the Whig movement and England’s lord chancellor
- as a result of patronage, he wrote and published important philosophical works
Locke’s career
When did Locke flee
- 1675 when Shaftesbury political career was floundering
- Locke fled to holland after settling in England again in 1679 when he only returned permanently at the Glorious revolution in 1688
Locke’s career
Locke as the father of modern empiricism?
- his ideas were very influential
- when he died in 1704, his theories were well known and his political ideas had been applied to the Glorious Revolution of 1688-1689
Locke’s career
ethical and moral ideas
- published in Two Treatises of Government
the significance of the Essay
What does Locke question? what does he conclude?
- questions how we think, percieve the world around us and the nature of religous practices
- he concludes experience is the most important source of human knowledge (empiricism)
the significance of the Essay
Book I of the essay: what does it cover
- the idea that humans are not born with knowledge
the significance of the Essay
Book II of the essay: what does it cover?
- knowledge can only come from experience
the significance of the Essay
Book III: what does it cover?
- language, why humans may use one word to categorise many different things
the significance of the Essay
Book IV: what does it cover
- can knowledge be entirely accurate? every persons knowledge is unique to their persepctive
the significance of the Essay
What does Hobbes argue? what are primary qualities?
- all things only consist of matter (locke also said this)
- ‘primary’ qualities (size, shape, etc) are the same regardless of someone’s perception
- secondary qualities (colour, smell, taste) can change perception based on conditions
- secondary qualities should not be focused on
the Essay’s significance for magic and witchcraft
what was Locke’s opinion on the supernatural?
- he made no allowance ofr it
- it was impossible to arrive at certain knowledge because he had not experienced them for himself
- spirits don’t have primary qualities, so they cannot be proven to exist because their existence is based on personal perceptions
the Essay’s significance for magic and witchcraft
what was Lockes opinion on astrology
herbs
- it could be useful
- for example, different medicinal herbs worked at different times of the year (which he learnt from experience)
- lockes denial of innate ideas was interpretd by some as heretical, because it suggested man, not God, was responsible for learning
