22 Flashcards
Describe a study about Levels of processing
Craik and Lockhart
Aim
To see if the type of question asked about words will have an effect on the number of words recalled.
Method
Participants given list of words, one at a time and asked questions about each word. They had to answer yes or no
The questions either required, structural, phonetic or semantic processing
They were then given a longer list of words and asked which ones were in the original list
Results
Participants were right about 70% of the words that needed semantic processing
35% phonetic
And 15% structural
Conclusion
The more deeply we process information the more likely we are to remember it
Describe a study about context in forgetting
Godden and Badley
Aim
To see if recall is affected by being tested in the same environment in which you learned the information
Method
Deep sea divers were divided into 4 groups and given the same list of words to learn Group 1 Learned and recalled underwater
Group 2 learned underwater and recalled on shore
Group 3 learned on shore and recalled on shore
Group 4 Learned on shore and recalled underwater
Results
Group 1 and 3 recalled 40% more than group 2 and 4
Conclusion
Recall of information is improved when it happens in the same context as when the information was learned.
Describe a study about factors that affect Eye Witness testimony
- Leading questions
Loftus and Palmer *key study
Aim
To see if vocabulary in a question changes the recall of an event
Method
Participants were shown a video of a car crash.
Group 1 was asked how fast the car HIT the other car
Group 2 were asked how fast did the car SMASH the other car
Results
Group 2 guessed higher speed estimates than group 1
Conclusion
Leading questions do effect the accuracy of recall. The word smashed led the participants to believe the car was going faster
Theories of prejudice
GREEN CARD
Describe/ outline/ explain …
What is the Tajfel study.
Tajfel (1970) ‘Minimal Group’ Experiment
AIM: To see if people will discrimate against members of an out group
METHOD: 14-15 year old boys were randomly assigned to 2 groups. Each boy was given a game to play where he had to award pairs of points to his own and the other team. The boys were told that the points could be swapped for prizes and the team with the most points at the end would win.
RESULTS: The boys awared points by choosing the pairings that created the biggest difference between groups; not the pairing that gave them the most points.
CONCLUSION: people will discriminate against others purely because they are members of an OUT GROUP.
SPD Theories of prejudice
In-groups and out-groups: Levine (2002); Gill (1980). [Your show off studies Allie]
Levine
Levine (2002)
AIM: To see if people would be more likely to help a stranger if they had something in common with them.
METHOD: A situation was sent up where a stuntman fell over in front of Man United fans. Half the time the stuntman was wearing a Man United shirt; half the time a Liverpool shirt.
RESULTS: When the stuntman was wearing the Man United shirt he got helped to his feet everytime.
When the stuntman was wearing the Liverpool shirt he was left there to get up by himself.
CONCLUSION: The study indicates that when we feel we have something in common with someone (in our In Group) we are more likely to help in an emergency and less likely to help someone from the Out-group.
How can we reduce prejudice and discrimination?
GREEN CARD
Describe/ outline/ exlpain …
What is Elliott’s study
ELLIOTT (1970)
Blue eyes-brown eyes/ Eye of the Storm
AIM: To test the idea that if people experience prejudice and discrimination first hand they will be less prejudiced in the future.
METHOD: Elliott divided her class of 9 yeard old children in to 2 groups on the basis of their eye colour (blue or green). On the first day she told them that the brown eyed children were superior, more inteligent, and would have more privileges. On the second day she reversed it so that the blue eyed children were superior. The ‘inferior’ group on both days were not allowed to play with the other children, and were made to wear collars to identify them. On the third day she debriefed them.
RESULTS: The ‘superior’ group on both days quickly became dominant and mean; and produced better work. The ‘inferior’ group became sad and angry and did worse in their work.
CONCLUSION: First hand experiences of prejudice and discrimination did create empathy amongst the children, and when they were interviewed at the age of 18 the children were more tolerant and against prejudice than a control group.
Ways of reducing prejudice
Eliot’s way of reducing prejudice: create empathy by having participants learn first hand what it’s like to be a victim of discrimination/ prejudice.
Eliot’s way of reducing prejudice: create empathy by having participants learn first hand what it’s like to be a victim of discrimination/ prejudice. Her studies involved getting children (and later adults) to experience prejudice and discrimination first hand so that they could feel what it was like to be discriminated against
Evaluation of this way
- Elliott’s research could be considered unethical as arguably the children suffered from psychological distress. However 9 years later the children who took part in the study showed more empathy towards other children than those who had not taken part in the study.
- We could argue that Elliott’s sample of primary age children were not necessarily representative of other groups in society, and that for example it was the tender age of the children that led them to be more susceptible to Elliott’s teachings than older children or adults would. However Elliott has since replicated this study with adults and multi-racial groups with similar results.
facial expressions
29.
H. Sackheim (1978)
[GREEN CARD]
H. Sackheim (1978)
AIM: To look at the relationship between facial expressions and the hemispheres of the brain.
METHOD: pictures of people’s faces posing six distinct emotions (plus a neutral expression) were cut down the middle. New pictures were created with each half face and its mirror image. Then each pair of new faces was shown to participants. They were asked which picture they liked better.
RESULTS: the majority of participants said they preferred the picture of the left half of the face and its reflection. When asked why they said the person looked ‘warmer.’
CONCLUSION: The expression displayed on the left side of the face (controlled by the right hemisphere of the brain) seems to express emotion much more than the right side. The findings indicate hemispheric asymmetry in the control over emotional expression in the face.
Postural echo
36.
McGinley (1975)
[GREEN CARD]
McGinley (1975)
AIM: To see the effect of postural echo when having a conversation.
METHOD: A confederate of the experimenter approached people in a social setting and had conversations with them. In half of the meetings, the confederate echoed the posture of the person they were talking to. In the other half of the meetings, the confederate did not echo the posture of the other person. Afterwards, the experimenter approached the individuals and asked them what they thought of the confederate.
RESULTS:
When postural echo was used, the people questioned liked the confederate and thought that they got of well together. When postural echo was not used, the confederate was not liked as much and the conversation felt awkward.
CONCLUSION: Postural echo gives an unconscious message of friendliness.
Gestures
Lynne and Mynier (1993)
[Green card]
Lynne and Mynier (1993)
Aim: To see the effect of gestures used by waiters and waitresses on the tipping behaviours of customers in a restaurant
Method: while taking orders from customers waiters and waitresses were instructed to either stand straight upright or squat down near to the customers, allowing eye contact.
Results: when they squatted down larger tips were received than when they stood upright to receive the orders.
Conclusion: the gesture of squatting down near a seated customer to take an order will have a positive effect on tipping behaviour.
personal space
individual differences - personality
Williams (1971)
Williams (1971)
Aim: To see if personality has an effect on personal space.
Method: College students were given personality tests to see if they were extrovert (outgoing and sociable) or introvert (quiet and reserved). They were then sent to an office one by one to receive their college grades from a tutor. The researchers noted where they chose to sit in the office when receiving their grades.
Results: Introverts sat further away from the tutor than extroverts.
Conclusion: Where someone is extrovert or introvert will affect their use of personal space.
personal space
Culture
Summer (1969)
[green card]
Summer (1969)
Aim: To see if there are cultural differences in the use of personal space.
Method: Summer observed groups of white English people and groups of Arab people in conversation.
Results: The comfortable conversation distance for the white English people was 1-1.5 m, whereas the comfortable conversation distance for the Arab people was much less.
Conclusion: The use of personal space in normal conversation varies with culture.
Describe the aim, method, results and conclusion of Kagan and snidman study on temperament.
Aim To investigate whether temperament is due to biological differences.
Method K and S studied the reactions of 4 month old babies to new situations.
- 1st minute the baby was placed in a seat with the caregiver near by
- next 3 minutes the caregiver moved out of the baby’s view while the baby was shown different toys by the researcher
Results
20% of the babies showed distress by crying, vigorous movement of the arms and legs and arching of the back = classed as high reactive
40% of the babies showed little movement or emotion
= classed as low reactive
The rest fell somewhere between the two *
*in a follow up study 11 years later K and S found there was still a difference in the way the two groups reacted to new situations:
- high reactives were shy
- low reactives were calm
Conclusion K and S concluded that these two temperaments are due to
INHERITED DIFFERENCES
in the way the brain responds.
Describe the aim, method, results and conclusion of Farrington study on situational causes of APD.
Aim
To investigate the development of offending and anti social behaviour in males studied from
childhood to the age of 50.
Method
The researchers carried out a longitudinal study of the development of anti social and offending behaviour
in 411 males.
They all lived in deprived, inner city area of London. They were first studied at
the age of 8
and again at age 50.
Their parents and teachers were all interviewed. Searches were carried out at the Criminal Records Office to discover if they, or members of their family, had been convicted of a crime.
Results
41% of the males were convicted of at least one offence between the ages of 10 and 50.
- The most important risk factors for offending were: criminal behaviour in the family
- low school achievement
- poverty and poor parenting.
Conclusion
Situational factors lead to the development of
anti social behaviour.
Perry and Bussey
Aim: To investigate if children imitate behaviour carried out by same sex models.
Method: Children were shown films of role models carrying out activities that were unfamiliar to the children.
- Condition 1: all the male role models played with one activity while all the female role models played with another.
- Condition 2: some male role models and some female role models played one activity while the others played another.
Results:
- Condition 1: the children imitated what they had seen the same sex models doing. The boys chose the activity the male role models played and the girls chose the activity the female role models played.
- Condition 2: there was no difference in the activities the boys and girls chose.
Conclusion: When children are in an unfamiliar situation they will observe the behaviour of same sex role models. This gives them information about whether the activity is appropriate for their sex. If it is, the child will imitate that behaviour.
