2022 resit Flashcards
Name three types of nerves that innervate the bladder - indicate the type of innervation they provide and a brief outline of their function.
- Hypogastric nerve - sympathetic innervation
- Pelvic nerve - parasympathetic innervation
- Pudendal nerve - somatic innervation
Hypogastric nerve - transmits impulses from the pain receptors to the upper lumbar segment resulting in the perception of pain sensation from the urethra and bladder e.g. severe bladder distention and in inflammation.
Pelvic nerve - transmits impulses from the tension and pain receptors present in the wall of the bladder to the sacral region of spinal cord resulting in both reflex micturition and sensation of bladder fullness.
Pudendal nerve - transmits impulses for the sensation of - distention of the urethra, passage of urine through the urethra and maintains the tonic contractions of the skeletal muscle fibres of the external sphincter.
Discuss formulation consideration when formulating oral solutions and outline the types of excipients used.
- Appropriate viscosity for palatability and pour ability - may include viscosity enhancers to improve pouring quality
- Must be stable in solution - preservatives to prevent microbial growth and antioxidants to improve stability of the solution by minimising oxidation
- Palatable: add flavouring agent and sweetening agents to mask unpleasant taste of drugs and colouring agent to correlate with the flavouring agent.
- Dose in multiples of 5ml for convenience
Explain the term racemate.
An equimolar mixture of the R and S enantiomers
Name one identical property of enantiomers and one property that is different between the two enantiomers.
Crystal enantiomers have identical melting points.
Enantiomers rotate plane polarised different by an equal amount but in the opposite directions and interact differently with other chiral species.
Describe the difference between neurone, nerve and nervous system.
Neurone is an electrically excitable cell that receives, processes and transmits information through electrical and chemical signals.
Nerve is a bundle of fibres that conduct impulses between the brain or spinal cord and another part of the body. Nerves include fragments of neurons and non-neuronal cells
Nervous system is the network of nerve cells and fibres which transmits nerve impulses between parts of the body and coordinates its action.
Describe the components of a neurone.
Soma or perikaryon is the spherical portion of a neurone containing the cell nucleus
Dendrite is a short branched extension of a nerve cell, along which impulses are received from other cells at synapses and transmitted to the cell body.
Axon is the long thread-like part of a nerve cell along which impulses are conducted from the cell body to the other cells.
Describe what electrical events are associated with P-wave, the QRS complex and T wave.
P wave - depolarisation of atrial myocardium
QRS complex - ventricular depolarisation; atrial repolarisation also occurs during this time but its contribution is insignificant.
T wave: repolarisation of ventricles
Describe what is meant by preload and after load in the heart.
Preload = initial stretching of the cardiac myocytes prior to contraction; related to ventricular filing; tension applied before the muscle performs any work.
Afterload = the force against which the heart has to contract to eject blood; aortic pressure present at the instant that the aortic valve opens.
State why it is important to ensure that the powder is adequately mixed before compaction.
To ensure dose uniformity in the tablets.
Describe how a powder mixture is checked to confirm adequate mixing during pharmaceutical manufacturing.
- Random sampling from different parts of mixture - samples taken from different locations within the mixer at predetermined intervals - designed to represent the entire batch accurately.
- Statistical approach - ensures uniform distribution of the API
- Random mixture = homogeneity
- Sample size = scale of scrutiny
Name four differences between a mammalian eukaryotic cell and a prokaryotic cell.
- Membrane bound organelles
- Genetic material stored in nucleus
- Lack of cell wall in eukaryotes
- No mitochondria in prokaryotes
What does CFU mean?
- Stands for colony forming unit
- Estimation of the viable number of cells in a sample
Name two types of pathogens apart from bacteria and viruses.
- Fungi
- Helminths
Explain
how powders for injection are administered and give a possible
pharmaceutical reason why benzylpenicillin is formulated as a
powder for injection rather than a solution for injection.
- Dry sterile solid in final container for reconstitution
- The required volume of diluent is added prior to administration
- Typically used for drugs with short shelf life after dissolved in solution/solid state better stability, longer shelf life.
