2010 Flashcards
Study Diagram Q1.
Describe the human factors that may lead to the global temperature projection shown in the diagram.
Human factors
- Carbon Dioxide: from burning fossil fuels – road transport, power stations, heating systems, cement production and from deforestation (particularly in the rainforests) and peat bog reclamation/development (particularly in Ireland and Scotland for wind farms).
- CFC/PFCs: from aerosols, air-conditioning systems, refrigerators, polystyrene packaging etc.
- Methane: from rice paddies, animal dung and belching cows.
- Nitrous oxides: from vehicle exhausts and power stations.
- Sulphate aerosol particles and aircraft contrails: global ‘dimming’ -increase in cloud formation increases reflection / absorption in the atmosphere and therefore cooling.
NB There were 6 man-made greenhouse gases included in the Kyoto protocol (Carbon Dioxide, Methane, Nitrous Oxide, Hydroflurocarbons, PFCs and Sulphur Hexafluoride). Many more powerful than CO2.
Describe and explain the possible consequences of global warming.
Melting of the ice sheets/glaciers
- A rise in sea level with subsequent migration as islands and coastal areas are submerged. Loss of plant and animal habitats in these areas e.g. impact on polar bears which could lead to a loss of tourism/more problems in settlements as the bears scavenge instead of hunting on the ice.
- New transportation routes across the Arctic Ocean ie the North West Passage with resulting benefits to trade / previously ice bound coastal settlements.
- Extension of mineral exploitation into the Arctic with positive and negative consequences.
Changing rainfall/temperature patterns
- Higher or lower rainfall / temperature and maybe more extreme weather depending on where you are with resulting increasing / decreasing crop yields, more floods / drought / hurricanes / tornadoes etc.
- Extension or retreat of vegetation (and associated wildlife) by altitude as well as latitude-growing vines / sunflowers in Scotland, spread of malaria, the loss of the Cairngorm Arctic habitat etc.
- Change in ocean currents (EI Nino / La Nina).
- Change to the Atlantic Conveyor – disruption of the thermohaline circulation.
Study Diagram Q2.
Scree is a feature of both glaciated and limestone upland landscapes.
With the aid of annotated diagrams, describe and explain the conditions and processes which encourage the formation of scree slopes.
A sequence of diagrams, fully annotated, could score full marks
Conditions and processes which encourage the formation of scree slopes.
- Steep and bare rock faces with lines of weakness / well-jointed carboniferous limestone.
- Cold climate where temperatures often fall below freezing point at night.
Explanation
- The two factors above allow physical weathering to take place in the form of freeze-thaw action / frost shattering, where water collects in the rock fractures, freezes and expands by about 9% exerting great pressure on even the hardest rock.
- Repeated freeze-thaw action splits the rock into large sharp fragments which break off and are moved downhill by gravity to accumulate at the base of steep slopes as a scree or talus slope as large heaps of rock debris.
Corries are landscape features in glaciated upland areas.
With the aid of annotated diagrams, explain the processes involved in the formation of a corrie.
A sequence of diagrams, fully annotated, could score full marks.
Processes involved in formation of a corrie.
- Snow accumulates in mountain hollows when more snow falls in winter than melts in the summer.
- North / North-east facing slopes are more shaded so snow lies longer.
- Accumulated snow compresses into neve and eventually ice.
- Plucking, when ice freezes on to bedrock, fractures it and incorporates it into the glacial ice.
- Abrasion, when the angular rock within the glacial ice grinds away the valley sides and floor, over-deepening the hollow along with rotational movement of glacier.
- Glacier moves downhill due to gravity.
- Rotational movement not so powerful at corrie edge, allowing rock lip to form which traps water as ice melts, leaving a lochan.
Map Q3 shows the main origins of UK immigrants during 2005/2006.
Describe and suggest reasons for the patterns shown on Map Q3.
Migration factors
Description
- The largest number of migrants come from Poland (124,000)
Explanation
- Due to the expansion of the EU in 2005 and freedom of movement for workers
Description
- The second highest source was India (about 100,000)
Explanation
- Possibly due to Commonwealth links or people who already have family in the UK’s large Indian sector
Description
- A large proportion (48,000) came from Australia
Explanation
- Due to the lack of a language barrier and the increasing trend towards young people travelling for work experience
Credit should also be awarded for references to relevant push and pull factors.
With reference to a migration flow you have studied (Mexico to California), describe the impact on the donor country.
Answers could include advantages and disadvantages such as:
Advantages to Mexico for migration from Mexico into California
- The pressure on resources and jobs was lessened.
- The birth rate was also lowered as most migrants were of childbearing age.
- Money was often sent back to the families left behind, which helped to stimulate the economy - it is Mexico’s biggest source of foreign income ($6 bn per year).
- When migrants return, they can bring back new skills, which can be used in the donor country.
Disadvantages to Mexico for migration from Mexico into California
- The active population left, creating a burden on the economy.
- Those most educated left creating a ‘brain-drain’.
- Families are divided as males leave.
- Death rate increases as an elderly population is left.
- In the long term this creates dependency upon money sent back to home villages.
(b) With reference to a migration flow you have studied (Mexico to California), describe the impact on the receiving country.
Answers could include advantages and disadvantages such as:
Advantages to California for migration from Mexico into California
- The short-term labour gap was filled - migrants filled jobs Americans did not want.
- Mexican culture has enriched the border states with language, food and music.
- Increased population leading to increased taxation levels.
- Labour costs reduced - agricultural sector benefits from this.
Disadvantages to California for migration from Mexico into California
- Migrant workers feel discriminated against and socio-economic problems have ensued.
- When recession hit in the 1980s unemployment rose and racial tension was exacerbated.
- Ghettos developed in the poorest districts.
- TB has increased along the border.
- Illegal migration costs the USA millions of dollars for border patrols and holding centres.
Study OS Map Extract number 1788/105: York (separate item), and Map Q4.
What map evidence suggests that the Central Business District of York lies within Area A?
The following characteristics may be noted
- Densely packed, irregular street pattern.
- Transport centres eg bus station and railway station.
- Bridging points across River Ouse.
- Historical buildings eg The Minster, Castle.
- Important buildings eg information centre, churches and Town Hall.
- Evidence of inner ring road.
- Route convergence.
Study OS Map Extract number 1788/105: York (separate item), and Map Q4.
For either Area B or Area C, explain the advantages of its location and environment for its residents.
The advantages of the residential location and environment may include:
Area B (suburban housing area – Rawcliffe).
- Access to A19 for commuting to CBD.
- Near park and ride for commuting, and National cycle route.
- Modern design of cul-de-sacs and crescents for privacy and preventing through traffic, and roundabouts at access points.
- Services including a church for local use.
- Near industrial estate GR593553 for employment.
- Tourist facility to east ie Nature Reserve, and caravan site.
- Attractive environment ie small lake, on edge of town near farmland.
Area C (commuter village – Copmanthorpe).
- 6km from centre of York for shopping, work and entertainment.
- Nearby sliproad onto A64, ideal for commuters.
- Small, quiet village with a few services eg post office, public house, church.
- Leisure facility to north ie golf course.
- Environmentally attractive with Ebor Way going through the village and Askham Bogs Nature Reserve to the north.
- Surrounded on three sides by farmland.
Study OS Map Extract number 1788/105: York (separate item), and Map Q4.
Using map evidence, explain why the southward expansion of York into Area D may create land use conflicts.
Land uses which would conflict with further expansion would include
- National walking and cycle trail.
- New shopping centre − expansion may be restricted.
- Leisure facilities eg racecourse, golf course.
- Various farms eg White House farm.
- A64 bypass.
- Accommodation including Manor Hotel, caravan and camping site GR600476.
Other land uses include forestry, small villages, college, university, electricity transmission lines.
OS Map Extract number 1788/105: York
Study OS Map Extract number 1788/105: York (separate item).
Meanders have formed on the River Nidd from GR 450542 to its confluence with the River Ouse GR 513578.
Describe and explain, with the aid of a diagram or diagrams, how a meander is formed.
All of explanation could be included in a well annotated diagram.
A maximum of 4 marks should be given for river processes eg corrosion, corrasion/abrasion and hydraulic action.
Points could include
- Development of pools and riffles (differences in speed and depth).
- Erosion on the outside (concave bank) of bends due to faster flow.
- Helicoidal flow removing material.
- Deposition on the inside (convex bank) due to slower flow.
- Formation of point bars.
- Migration of meanders downstream.
Study OS Map Extract number 1788/105: York (separate item) and Map Q5.
“The 2000 floods were the worst in York since records began and the River Ouse reached a height of 5·3 metres above its normal summer level.”
(BBC News, November 2000)
With the aid of map evidence, explain the physical factors and human factors which may have contributed to the flooding in York after periods of extreme rainfall.
Physical factors may have included
- The close proximity of a tidal limit to York, GR594445.
- A low lying floodplain around or below 10 metres in height.
- Tributaries joining the River Ouse eg River Foss (605510).
- Global warning may cause extreme weather events (eg rainfall).
Human factors may have included
- Home building on a flood plain.
- River straightening.
- Man-made strengthening and narrowing of river banks.
- Facilities deliberately located on floodplain eg racecourse, caravan and camping site.
- Land use changes in catchment.
- Increased run-off from the ‘urbanised’ environment.
Study Diagram Q6 which shows some of the factors involved in vegetation succession on sand dunes.
Explain why there is a change in vegetation cover and species as you move inland from the beach. You should refer to named plant species in your answer.
Award marks for correctly named and located plant species.
Credit can be given for factors not shown on the graph such as shelter.
Students may answer this question using the headings on the graph or the more usual progression from strandline to climax vegetation.
- Plant cover increases – the amount of sand showing through the dune decreases as more of the ground is covered by vegetation. Little cover in the pioneer stage, more in the building stage and complete cover in the climax stage unless disturbed by animals/humans/storms etc.
- Soil moisture increases – rain/fresh water is trapped with added humus/plant cover and longer rooted plants drawing water up from the water table. Xerophytic plants found in the drier strandline (sea sandwort, sea rocket, saltwort) and embryo dune (sea or sand couch, lyme grass, frosted orache). On the yellow dune Marram grass has long rhizomes to spread through the sand. Dune slacks at or near the water table have hydrophytic species like reeds, rushes and flag iris.
- Organic matter content increases – decaying pioneer species adding humus to the sand. In the fore-dune more plants stabilise the sand adding humus (sea bindweed, sea holly, sand sedge, and marram grass) changing the sand to a sandy loam and from the sandy colour of this and the yellow dune to the grey dune.
- PH decreases – shells (CaCO3) producing alkaline conditions on shore, more neutral pH by the climax stage as plants decay and add acid to the soil. The grey dune plants include sand sedge, sand fescue, bird’s foot trefoil, heather, sea buckthorn and grey lichens. In the climax stage a range of plants from heathers to birch, pine or oak woodland can grow depending on the final pH value of the soil.
- Salinity decreases – Increased distance from the sea and salt water/tides/spray increases the amount and variety of plant species that can cope with the conditions.
“Mechanisation has led to major changes in commercial arable farming.”
Suggest why farmers have invested in increased mechanisation.
Answers could include the following
- Mechanisation increases the efficiency on a farm enabling the farmer to plough, sow, spray, etc more quickly, covering larger areas.
- It also speeds up harvesting and results in the product being delivered to markets fresher and at a higher premium (eg Bird’s Eye peas).
- It also allows for a smaller work force and therefore lower wage bills for the agribusiness usually involved in these farms.
- It allows for the use of satellite technology/computers to control the application of fertilisers to particular areas of fields to improve yields (yet decrease the cost and waste) as only the required amounts are delivered to each segment according to the soil quality there.
Study Diagram Q7 which shows some of the other recent changes in commercial arable farming.
Describe and explain two of the changes shown in Diagram Q7.
For EU Policies eg Single Farm Payment
This payment has replaced the existing support schemes to farmers like the arable area payment scheme and includes other entitlements like the set-aside entitlement.
The total payable to the farmer is calculated using the historical payments made to the farm from 2000 to 2002. The farmer gets a single payment based on these calculations. To continue to receive this payment the farmer must keep the land in ‘good agricultural and environmental condition - this includes an obligation to keep land in set-aside. Penalties will be made if these conditions are not met - government inspectors will visit to check!
For Genetically Modified food/genetic engineering
Scientists manipulate the genes of plant cells by adding/deleting DNA. The first commercial genetically engineered food was the Flavr Savr tomato – by adding a
fish gene it had a longer ‘shelf-life’. Since then the developments have concentrated on four main crops – oilseed rape, cotton, maize and soya bean.
These crops have been made herbicide resistant (they can tolerate the herbicides that will kill the weeds) and/or pest resistant (they produce a toxin that kills the pest that would normally eat them). This technology has also been used to
improve the taste, nutrition or drought-resistance of the crop. Ethical concerns, health risks, environmental concerns eg cross-pollination to produce ‘superweeds’ have led to these crops being limited in area (although that is still estimated at 1
million square kilometres).
Study the following Diagram Q1A and Map Q1B.
Diagram Q1A: News Reports on the Proposals for the Menie Estate
- “Business leaders have joined forces to urge the Scottish Government to give the go-ahead to US billionaire Donald Trump’s plans for a golf resort . . . Mr Trump hopes to build a resort featuring two championship golf courses, a five-star hotel, 950 holiday homes and 500 private houses at the Menie Estate in Aberdeenshire.”*
- (The Herald 11/8/08)*
- “The value of Menie Links as part of the Foveran Links SSSI cannot be understated. It is the most dynamic, most rapidly moving and largest area of bare sand in this area of Scotland. It is quite simply the jewel in the crown of the SSSI areas of bare sand in this area of Scotland and therefore the jewel in the crown of the UK resource.”*
- (Scottish Natural Heritage (SNH) expert—The Herald 19/6/08)*
- RSPB Scotland objected to the Trump International application*
- because . . . the developer’s own Environmental Statement*
- acknowledges that there will be very significant adverse effects on habitats and biodiversity—the mobile dunes, which form one of the main qualifying features of the Foveran Links SSSI, will be destroyed.*
- (http://www.rspb.org.uk/ourwork/conservation/sites/scotland/menie.asp)*
- (RSPB = Royal Society for the Protection of Birds)*
- One example of a land use conflict is the proposed leisure/housing development at the Menie Estate in Aberdeenshire. Part of this development takes place on a protected sand dune area designated as an SSSI. (SSSI = Site of Special Scientific Interest.)*
Discuss the advantages and disadvantages of developments such as this on the local people and the environment.
Candidates should be able to discuss both sides of the argument in this development, to achieve full marks.
Advantages/People arguing for the plan
- Jobs will be created during and after the construction.
- The golf course will boost visitor numbers and bring money into the economy of the local area.
- The new houses will attract people to move here and boost local services like schools.
- Local businesses will benefit by supplying the hotel ie taxi companies, food/farm contracts.
Disadvantages/People arguing against the plan
- Labour force – probably not local people, strain on local services.
- This will damage the mobile sand dunes and associated wildlife. Loss of habitat/biodiversity.
- Locals/wildlife enthusiasts will no longer have access to the beach/sand dunes on the estate.
- Car parks/roads and buildings associated with the development will cause visual pollution.
Study Diagram Q2A.
Describe and explain the processes of soil erosion by water.
Processes:
- Rainsplash – usually the first stage in the erosion process, the impact of raindrops on the surface of a soil causing the soil particles to be moved. On steeper slopes they move further downhill. This means that resettled sediment blocks soil pores resulting in surface crusting and lower infiltration.
- Sheet erosion – the removal of a thin layer of surface soil which has already been disturbed by rainsplash, accounts for large volumes of soil loss, rarely flows for more than a few metres before concentrating into rills. Typically results in the loss of the finest soil particles which usually contain the nutrients and organic matter.
- Rill erosion – small eroded channels, only centimetres (up to about 30cm) deep and not permanent features, often obliterated by the next rainstorm, or develop into gullies.
- Gully erosion – steep sided water channels, several metres deep which can cut deeply into the soil after storms and are often permanent. Rain water running into the gully scours the sides or undercuts the head wall which results in the gully migrating. Widening of gully sides can occur by undercutting or slumping.
Study Table Q2B.
Describe and explain how human activities have caused land degradation in North America and either Africa north of the Equator or the Amazon Basin.
North America
- For the Dust Bowl:
- Use of techniques better suited to the moister eastern states.
- Monoculture, especially of wheat or demanding crops (cotton), depleted the soil of moisture and nutrients.
- Deep ploughing of fragile soils (previously these had been held in place by natural grasslands).
- Marginal land ploughed – particularly in wet years – leaving them in a fragile condition in dry years.
- Ploughing downslope creating opportunities for rill erosion.
- Farm sizes being too small so forcing farmers to overcrop – particularly when prices were low and therefore income was low.
- For the Tennessee Valley:
- Much of the area was cleared of its trees – this opened up the soil surface to erosion.
- Mining and farming also cleared the natural vegetation and led to soil erosion.
- The farmers cultivated steep slopes which were ploughed up and down the slope.
- Overcropping had already weakened the soil.
- The eroded soil was dumped in rivers and this caused them to flood.
- A lack of fertilizer caused the soil to lose its structure and become vulnerable to erosion.
For Africa, north of the equator, mention might be made of overgrazing, overcropping, deforestation, monoculture, farming cash crops.
- Allowing more grazing than the pasture can support (eg in West Africa) where herd size is a status symbol.
- Allowing the soil to be stripped bare leaving it vulnerable to erosion.
- Increased population density caused by falling death rates leading to overcultivation.
- Deforestation for firewood/building.
- Bush fires to clear land for farming.
- In some places peasant farmers have had to farm marginal land due to the best land being used for cash crops (eg in parts of Sudan).
- The drought may have caused nomads to move into villages where the land may now be over-cultivated (eg in Burkina Faso).
For the Amazon Basin, answers will be based on deforestation:
- Deforestation – for eg ranching/mineral extraction/logging/road building/poor peasant farmers.
- Loss of protective cover of trees due to deforestation.
- This allows heavy tropical rainfall to erode the soil.
- Exposure to increased sunlight due to deforestation leads to the soil baking and becoming useless.
- The loss of the root system which previously bound the soil together.
- Deforestation also leads to increased leaching of the soil rendering it useless in addition to erosion.
- The impact of ranching: forest cleared, used for a few years until grass fails – move and clear a new stretch of forest and continue the process.
