2. Planning and Conducting Research Flashcards
Aims and Hypotheses and How to Formulate: Research Questions
Psychologists start with a set of questions posed about human or animal behaviour. They can be based on events, previous research or trying to find a cause of behaviour.
Aims and Hypotheses and How to Formulate: Research Aims
Once a question has been identified, the next step is to identify an aim of an investigation to test or answer your research question(s)
Aims and Hypotheses and How to Formulate: Null Hypothesis
A null hypothesis states that the independent variable will not have the predicted effect on the dependent variable.
Aims and Hypotheses and How to Formulate: Alternate hypothesis
An alternate (or experimental) hypothesis will predict the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable.
Aims and Hypotheses and How to Formulate: One Tailed Hypothesis
A one tailed hypothesis is when a specific effect is predicted.
Aims and Hypotheses and How to Formulate: Two Tailed Hypothesis
A two tailed hypothesis is when an effect is predicted but not specified.
Populations, samples and sampling techniques: Target population and sample
Psychologists use a sample in their research when they can’t, for practical reasons, study an entire target population. (Group of people you wish to study)
A sample is a group of the target population used to represent the entire target population. Psychologists choose a sample and try to achieve a balance between
- Getting as representative a sample as they can
- Being cost and time effective when conducting the study
Populations, samples and sampling techniques: Random Sampling
A random sample is when every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected to be in the sample.
Populations, samples and sampling techniques: Snowball sampling
A snowball sample is a particularly useful technique to gather a group of people to conduct research that is socially sensitive. The researcher will fine one participant, once they have been studied they will be asked to find people who they know are in the same situation as them.
Populations, samples and sampling techniques: Opportunity sampling
This is also known as a convenience sample. The researcher selects the most convenient people to study. However this can lead to a sample bias, but they allow the researcher to collect a large sample with relative ease.
Populations, samples and sampling techniques: Self selected sampling
Also known as volunteer sampling. Here, people choose to be part of the study. Typical ways of collecting this study is putting out an advert. This method, however, is open to sample bias as only a certain type of person may volunteer and participants may sign up to go against the aim of the research, the ‘screw you effect’.
Populations, samples and sampling techniques: Strengths and Weaknesses of sampling techniques
- The sample has to be representative of the target population, this allows us to gently use the findings.
- If a sample is not representative it is called a bias sample.
- Sample size has to be considered.
Populations, samples and sampling techniques: Biases
Psychologists are often cautions about making generalisations where only one type of person is selected to represent a diverse population. These biases are known as ethnocentric biases:
- Gender bias
- Age bias
- Culture bias
Experimental Design: Repeated Measures
This is where each participant is tested in every condition.
S: By comparing the same person in different conditions, the likelihood of individual differences is reduced. This design also uses fewer people than other, making it more time and cost effective.
W: Participants can be effected by order effects and boredom. They may also work out the independent variable and thus show demand characteristic.
Experimental Design: Independent measures
This is where a sample is allocated to either the experimental condition(s) or a control condition, usually with equal members in each.
S: It is not affected by order effects as each participant is only tested in one condition, it is less likely to be affected by demand characteristics and is less time consuming than matched pairs.
W: Does not control extraneous variable. Large samples are often needed in order to be sure that any effect on the IV is caused by the DV.
Experimental Design: Matched Pairs
Each participant is paired up with someone else in the sample based on the variables of the study e.g. gender, age etc. One of the pair is tested in the experimental condition and the other in the control.
S: Avoids the problems of repeated measures design; does not show order effects or demand characteristics. Controls participant variables more than the independent measures design.
W: Often time consuming to match participants. Sometimes it is impossible to find a match and ensure the match is correct.
Variables and how they are operationalised: Independent Variable (IV)
This is the variable that is manipulated in the experiment, and what psychologists predict is causing the behaviour.
variables and how they are operationalised: Dependent Variable (DV)
The variable that is measured, depends on a change in the IV.
Variables and how they are operationalised: Extraneous Variable
All other variables that may influence the behaviour are known as extraneous variables, these need to be controlled as far as possible.
Designing Observations: Behavioural Categories
When the observer devises an observation schedule, so that what behaviour is observed and how it is going to be recorded is determined before the observation.
S: Provide quantitative data which can be easily compared between subjects or groups. It can also be summarised and statistically analysed.
w: Gives a restricted view of what is actually happening, the researcher may miss important behaviour.
Designing Observation: Coding Frames
The observer observes the behaviour and identifies key features of the behaviour and codes for them. The observer will sometimes have boxes to record certain types of behaviour and the numer of times this behaviour was carried out.
S: Allows psychologists to analyse qualitative data.
W: Difficult to feature all types of behaviour.
Designing Observations: Time Sampling
- Time Point Sampling: where the observer records what participants are doing at certain fixed intervals.
- Time Event Sampling: Where a fixed period of time is set for an observation.
Designing Observations: Event Sampling
Where an event in behaviour is recorded each time it happens.
Designing Self Report: Open Questions
Open questions allow the participant freedom to respond openly and give them the opportunity to explain their answers.
S: It provides qualitative data which is rich and detained, and there is an increased realism as participants can answer with all their information, increasing validity.
W: It is harder to analyse and compare responses.
Designing Self Report: Closed Questions
Closed questions have a fixed response.
S: Provide qualitative data which is easily summarised, presented and compared between participants and conditions. It is also easier to test reliability.
W: Lacks ecological validity and only allows the researcher to attain limited information.
Designing Self Report: Rating Scales
Rating scales are used to measure variables on a scale, providing quantitative data. These are often used in self report questionnaires and structured interviews.
Designing Self Report: Likert Scales
A likert scale is where participants are given a range of answers from which they select the one that represents the extent to which they agree (e.g. disagree, strongly agree ect.)
Designing Self Report: Semantic Differential Scale:
Used to put something between two descriptive words, e.g. strong or weak. Usually opposites and reflect what is being measured.
Matched Pairs
Each participant is paired up with someone else in the sample based on the variables of the study, e.g. gender, age etc. One of the pair is tested in the experimental condition and the other in the control.
S: Avoids the problems of a repeated measures design: does not show order effects or demand characteristics, controls participant variables better.
W: It is often time consuming to match participants and is sometimes impossible to find a match or ensure that a match is correct.
Variables and how they are operationalised: Independent Variable (IV)
This is the variable that is manipulated in the experiment, This is what psychologists predict is causing the certain behaviour.
