2. Planning and Conducting Research

Question 1

Aims and Hypotheses and How to Formulate: Research Questions

Answer 1

Psychologists start with a set of questions posed about human or animal behaviour. They can be based on events, previous research or trying to find a cause of behaviour.

Question 2

Aims and Hypotheses and How to Formulate: Research Aims

Answer 2

Once a question has been identified, the next step is to identify an aim of an investigation to test or answer your research question(s)

Question 3

Aims and Hypotheses and How to Formulate: Null Hypothesis

Answer 3

A null hypothesis states that the independent variable will not have the predicted effect on the dependent variable.

Question 4

Aims and Hypotheses and How to Formulate: Alternate hypothesis

Answer 4

An alternate (or experimental) hypothesis will predict the effect of the independent variable on the dependent variable.

Question 5

Aims and Hypotheses and How to Formulate: One Tailed Hypothesis

Answer 5

A one tailed hypothesis is when a specific effect is predicted.

Question 6

Aims and Hypotheses and How to Formulate: Two Tailed Hypothesis

Answer 6

A two tailed hypothesis is when an effect is predicted but not specified.

Question 7

Populations, samples and sampling techniques: Target population and sample

Answer 7

Psychologists use a sample in their research when they can’t, for practical reasons, study an entire target population. (Group of people you wish to study)

A sample is a group of the target population used to represent the entire target population. Psychologists choose a sample and try to achieve a balance between

1. Getting as representative a sample as they can
2. Being cost and time effective when conducting the study

Question 8

Populations, samples and sampling techniques: Random Sampling

Answer 8

A random sample is when every member of the target population has an equal chance of being selected to be in the sample.

Question 9

Populations, samples and sampling techniques: Snowball sampling

Answer 9

A snowball sample is a particularly useful technique to gather a group of people to conduct research that is socially sensitive. The researcher will fine one participant, once they have been studied they will be asked to find people who they know are in the same situation as them.

Question 10

Populations, samples and sampling techniques: Opportunity sampling

Answer 10

This is also known as a convenience sample. The researcher selects the most convenient people to study. However this can lead to a sample bias, but they allow the researcher to collect a large sample with relative ease.

Question 11

Populations, samples and sampling techniques: Self selected sampling

Answer 11

Also known as volunteer sampling. Here, people choose to be part of the study. Typical ways of collecting this study is putting out an advert. This method, however, is open to sample bias as only a certain type of person may volunteer and participants may sign up to go against the aim of the research, the ‘screw you effect’.

Question 12

Populations, samples and sampling techniques: Strengths and Weaknesses of sampling techniques

Answer 12

• The sample has to be representative of the target population, this allows us to gently use the findings.
• If a sample is not representative it is called a bias sample.
• Sample size has to be considered.

Question 13

Populations, samples and sampling techniques: Biases

Answer 13

Psychologists are often cautions about making generalisations where only one type of person is selected to represent a diverse population. These biases are known as ethnocentric biases:

• Gender bias
• Age bias
• Culture bias

Question 14

Experimental Design: Repeated Measures

Answer 14

This is where each participant is tested in every condition.

S: By comparing the same person in different conditions, the likelihood of individual differences is reduced. This design also uses fewer people than other, making it more time and cost effective.

W: Participants can be effected by order effects and boredom. They may also work out the independent variable and thus show demand characteristic.

Question 15

Experimental Design: Independent measures

Answer 15

This is where a sample is allocated to either the experimental condition(s) or a control condition, usually with equal members in each.

S: It is not affected by order effects as each participant is only tested in one condition, it is less likely to be affected by demand characteristics and is less time consuming than matched pairs.

W: Does not control extraneous variable. Large samples are often needed in order to be sure that any effect on the IV is caused by the DV.

Question 16

Experimental Design: Matched Pairs

Answer 16

Each participant is paired up with someone else in the sample based on the variables of the study e.g. gender, age etc. One of the pair is tested in the experimental condition and the other in the control.

S: Avoids the problems of repeated measures design; does not show order effects or demand characteristics. Controls participant variables more than the independent measures design.

W: Often time consuming to match participants. Sometimes it is impossible to find a match and ensure the match is correct.

Question 17

Variables and how they are operationalised: Independent Variable (IV)

Answer 17

This is the variable that is manipulated in the experiment, and what psychologists predict is causing the behaviour.

Question 18

variables and how they are operationalised: Dependent Variable (DV)

Answer 18

The variable that is measured, depends on a change in the IV.

Question 19

Variables and how they are operationalised: Extraneous Variable

Answer 19

All other variables that may influence the behaviour are known as extraneous variables, these need to be controlled as far as possible.

Question 20

Designing Observations: Behavioural Categories

Answer 20

When the observer devises an observation schedule, so that what behaviour is observed and how it is going to be recorded is determined before the observation.

S: Provide quantitative data which can be easily compared between subjects or groups. It can also be summarised and statistically analysed.

w: Gives a restricted view of what is actually happening, the researcher may miss important behaviour.

Question 21

Designing Observation: Coding Frames

Answer 21

The observer observes the behaviour and identifies key features of the behaviour and codes for them. The observer will sometimes have boxes to record certain types of behaviour and the numer of times this behaviour was carried out.

S: Allows psychologists to analyse qualitative data.

W: Difficult to feature all types of behaviour.

Question 22

Designing Observations: Time Sampling

Answer 22

1. Time Point Sampling: where the observer records what participants are doing at certain fixed intervals.
2. Time Event Sampling: Where a fixed period of time is set for an observation.

Question 23

Designing Observations: Event Sampling

Answer 23

Where an event in behaviour is recorded each time it happens.

Question 24

Designing Self Report: Open Questions

Answer 24

Open questions allow the participant freedom to respond openly and give them the opportunity to explain their answers.

S: It provides qualitative data which is rich and detained, and there is an increased realism as participants can answer with all their information, increasing validity.

W: It is harder to analyse and compare responses.

Question 25

Designing Self Report: Closed Questions

Answer 25

Closed questions have a fixed response.

S: Provide qualitative data which is easily summarised, presented and compared between participants and conditions. It is also easier to test reliability.

W: Lacks ecological validity and only allows the researcher to attain limited information.

Question 26

Designing Self Report: Rating Scales

Answer 26

Rating scales are used to measure variables on a scale, providing quantitative data. These are often used in self report questionnaires and structured interviews.

Question 27

Designing Self Report: Likert Scales

Answer 27

A likert scale is where participants are given a range of answers from which they select the one that represents the extent to which they agree (e.g. disagree, strongly agree ect.)

Question 28

Designing Self Report: Semantic Differential Scale:

Answer 28

Used to put something between two descriptive words, e.g. strong or weak. Usually opposites and reflect what is being measured.

Question 29

Matched Pairs

Answer 29

Each participant is paired up with someone else in the sample based on the variables of the study, e.g. gender, age etc. One of the pair is tested in the experimental condition and the other in the control.

S: Avoids the problems of a repeated measures design: does not show order effects or demand characteristics, controls participant variables better.

W: It is often time consuming to match participants and is sometimes impossible to find a match or ensure that a match is correct.

Question 30

Variables and how they are operationalised: Independent Variable (IV)

Answer 30

This is the variable that is manipulated in the experiment, This is what psychologists predict is causing the certain behaviour.