2. Memory Flashcards
1
Q
Who created the MSM?
A
Atkinson and Shiffrin - 1968
2
Q
MSM
A
A memory model that sees information flowing through a series of sstorage systems
3
Q
Draw MSM
AO1
A
4
Q
Explain MSM (AO1)
A
- Begins with sensory register
- SR has a capacity that is large, a duration between 0.5-2s and the coding depends on the sense that is picked up, (each sense has a sub-store, Ex: Echoic store detects auditory information)
- If this information is important we pay attention to it, which transfers it to the STM - If we don’t pay attention to it, then the information decays
- STM has a capacity of 7±2 , (Miller’s magic number), a duration of 18-30s and is coded acoustically
- If this information is important, then we rehearse it, which transfers it to our LTM
- LTM has an unlimited capacity, a duration that lasts a lifetime and the information is coded semantically
- It is also important to note this model sees STM and LTM as being unitary stores
5
Q
Evaluate MSM (AO3)
A
- Supported by neuroimaging studies by Beardsley and Squire - These studies show that when the STM is being used, our pre-frontal cortex is active and when our LTM is being used the Hippocampus is active - This shows STM and LTM take place at different parts of the brain
- Patient HM
- Patient KF
- The model is criticised for being over-simplified, (for instance, there are three types of LTM but it is shown as a unitary store) –> Compare to WMM
- Most of the studies that support MSM lack ecological validity and mundane realism as the Brown-Peaterson technique which was commonly used is unrealistic to taks people have to carry out in day to day life
6
Q
KF Case Study
A
- Patient KF was in a motorcycle accident and entered a coma
- Doctors believed he would suffer from brain damage
- Doctors predicted he would be unable to form new STM, but according to the model which says information is passed logically and sequentially, this also means he wouldn’t be able to form LTM
- When he woke up, doctors ran tests which showed his STM was impaired, however, his LTM wasn’t impaired
- Patient KF also tested better on visual short-term memory tasks than verbal tasks, supporting the existance of multiple STM stores, which proves MSM may be oversimplified
7
Q
HM Case Study
A
- Patient HM had epilepsy and in order to treat it, doctors had to surgically remove his hippocampus
- After surgery, they found HM was able to form new STM but not new LTM, which supports the neuroimaging studies of Beardsley and Squire, as it shows that the STM and LTM formation/usage takes place at different parts of the brain
8
Q
Brown-Peaterson technique
A
- Presents a triagram to Ps
- Ps are then asked to count backwards by a given number, to prevent rehearsal
- They are then given a signal to recall the triagram
Tests short-term recall, without the use of rehearsal
9
Q
Aim: Baddeley
AO1
A
To assess whether coding in the STM and LTM is mainly acoustic or semantic
10
Q
Procedure: Baddeley
AO1
A
- 75 Ps were presented with one of four word lists
- These word lists were repeated four times
- List A = Acoustically similar words - Ex: Cat, Mat and Sat
- List B = Acoustically disimilar words - Ex: Pit, Day and Cow
- List C = Semantically similar words - Ex: Big, Tall and Huge
- List D = Semantically disimilar words - Ex: Hot, Safe and Foul
- To test coding in STM participants were given a list of words in the worng order and were asked to rearrange them into the right order
- To test coding in LTM participants had to do the same procedure, however, they had to do a 20-minute interference task before recall, (this prevented rehearsal)
11
Q
Results: Baddeley
AO1
A
- For STM participants given List A performed the worst with a recall of only 10%
- For LTM participants given List C performed the worst with a recall of only 55%
12
Q
Conclusion: Baddeley
AO1
A
- Since List A was recalled least accurately, it means that there was acoustic confusion, suggesting that our STM is coded acoustically
- Since List C was recalled least accurately, it means that there was semantic confusion, suggesting that our LTM is coded semantically
13
Q
Evaluation: Baddeley
AO3
A
G: Baddeley had a good sample size, meaning that anomalies, (ex: People with a really good or bad memory), will be averaged out, meaning the results are generalisable - However, because there were lots of conditions, there weren’t many Ps in each condition, (only 15 people did the acoustically similar condition), with a sample size this small, there could be anomalies - Those who volunteer are more likely to enjoy taking memory tests and have a better memory which will skew the average
R: Standardised instructions mean that the experiment could be repeated in order to test validity of results
A: Baddeley was able to apply this research into creating a new memory model called the WMM, (which he did with Hitch), this model was seen as being more reliable than MSM
V: The study was carried out in a lab, meaning that it lacked ecological validity - It could also be argued that the fact they had to reorder the lists meant the task lacked mundane realism, as this is not something someone would have to do in day to day life
14
Q
SR
According to MSM
A
- First store of MSM
- It detects stimuli from our senses
- Capacity = Large
- Duration = 0.5-2s
- Coding = Depends on the sense that is picked up
- Each sense has a sub-store, for example, the echoic store codes auditory information
- A large capacity was proven by Sperling’s study - Outline the study in breif detail
15
Q
STM
According to MSM
A
- STM is a unitary and passive store
- Capacity = 7±2 - Capacity can be improved through a process known as chunking
- Ex of Chunking: It is easier to remember a 12-word sequence if we break it up into 3 - 4-word sequences
- Duration = 18-30s
- Coding = Acoustic
- Study to support the fact coding is acoustic = Baddeley - When answering questions breifly outline the study and results
16
Q
LTM
According to MSM
A
- LTM is a unitary store
- Capacity = Unlimited
- Duration = A lifetime
- Coding = Semantic
- Duration is evidenced by the fact that older citizens over the age of 80 can still recall events from their childhood
- Coding is evidenced by the Baddeley study, which should be outlined if asked about LTM in a 4 or 6 marker
- Although LTM has an unlimited capacity, we do sometimes forget information, however, this is not due to the capacity of our LTM
17
Q
**
Chunking
A
A method of increasing the capacity of our STM by grouping items together
18
Q
Breifly outline Sperling’s study
A
- 3x4 grid of letters were shown to Ps for 50 milliseconds
- Ps then listend to different tones, which indicated which row they had to recall
- Some Ps were asked to recall the whole grid
- Recall of letters when a row was indicatede at random was high, which suggests all entire grid was stored in our sensory register
- However, because it has such a short duration, sometimes the grid faded before Ps could finish recall
- This indicated the capacity for the sensory register is large
19
Q
Who created the WMM?
A
Baddeley and Hitch - 1974
20
Q
WMM
A
An explanation of working memory that sees STM as being an active store that can hold multiple peices of information simultaneously
21
Q
Draw WMM
AO1
A
22
Q
Explain WMM (AO1)
A
- Concept of the model stems from the dual-task effect
- Model begins with CE
- CE allocates attention towards different slaves systems as well as deciding which information detected by the sense organs needs tending to
- The first of these slave systems is the PL
- PL’s main job is to deal with auditory information
- PL is further divided into the articulatory process and the primary acoustic store
- Articulatory process silently repeats this information which is then stored in the primary acoustic store
- Next slave system is the visuo-spatial sketchpad
- The main job of this system is to deal with visual and spatial information
- It is further divided into the visual cache and the inner-scribe - The visual cache deals with visual information and the inner-scribe deals with spatial information regarding layouts/arrangements of items
- Final slave system was actually added by Baddeley in 2000 - This is known as the episodic buffer
- The episodic buffer combines information from all the senses to create a general scene of an event
- This information is then transfered and stored in the long-term memory, in the form of an episodic memory
23
Q
Evaluate WMM (AO3)
Evidence
A
- Supported by Patient KF - Who’s auditory STM was more impacted than visual STM, supporting evidence for multiple working memory stores + Evidence for PL & VSS
- Baddeley and Gathercole dual task study is also a strength, as it provides evidence for WMM
- Neuroimaging studies also support WMM - When carrying out auditory tasks that would use our PL our temporal lobe is active - However, when doing visual tasks that would use our VSS our occipital lobe is active, supporting idea of multiple stores and suggests that working memory is not a unitary store
24
Q
PL
A
- Temporary store with a limited capacity
- The PL’s main job is to deal with auditory information
- Comprised of articulatory process and primary acoustic store
- Articulatory process silently repeats information
- Primary acoustic store then stores this information
25
**VSS (Inner Eye)**
* Temporary store with a limited capacity
* The VSS' main job isto deal with visual and spatial information
* Comprised of visual cache and inner-scribe
* Visual cache deals with visual information
* Inner-scribe deals with information regarding the layout/arrangement of items
26
**CE**
* Filters out important information that is detected from sense organs and allocates attention to different slave systems
* No capacity as it doesn't store information
* However, the CE has a limited attention capacity
27
What are the **three different types of LTM**?
1. Semantic memory
2. Episodic memory
3. Procedural memory
28
**Semantic memory**
Type of LTM which stores information based on facts and other concept-based knowledge, (Ex: The fact that the capital of France is Paris)
## Footnote
Memories are declarative, which means they can be consciously recalled
29
**Episodic memory**
Type of LTM which stores information about events we have actually experienced and it combines information from our 5 senses
## Footnote
Memories are declarative, which means they can be consciously recalled
30
**Procedural memory**
Stores information about how to do things, (Ex: Play the piano)
## Footnote
Memories are not declarative, meaning they cannot be consciously recalled
31
Evaluate WMM **(AO3)**
| Application
Can be applied to 'multi-tasking' and why we cannot always 'multi-task' when the tasks use the same slave system as it may become overloaded or the CE may not be able to allocate enough attention to the slave system as the CE only has a limited attention capacity
32
Evaluate WMM **(AO3)**
| Limitations
* The central executive lacks falsifiability, as it cannot be scientifically tested. Some psychologists argue the CE is made up of multiple different cognitive processes, such as: planning, attention and response inhibition - This would mean that there could potentially be more than 1 CE as these processes take place in different parts of the brain.
* Another limitation is that the studies used to support this memory model lack ecological validity and the tasks used can sometimes lack mundane realism, meaning the findings of these experiments may not be able to be extrapolated to real life.
* Finally, WMM is not a comprehensive memory model, as it only includes working memory, not sensory memory or long-term memory
33
**Coding**
Refers to the way different memory stores convert information into a suitable format, so it can be stored in our brains
34
**Capacity**
Refers to the maximum amount of information each memory store can hold
35
**Duration**
Refers to the length of time a memory is stored in a specific memory store
36
What are the two **explanations for forgetting**?
* Interference theory
* Cue-dependent forgetting theory
37
**Interference theory**
Explanation of forgetting when similar material is confused in recall from our LTM
38
**Proactive interference**
Older information, learnt previosuly, interfers with our ability to store new information
39
**Example** of **proactive interference**
* A Psychology teacher had an old student named Freddie and a new student named Eddie
* He keeps calling Eddie; Freddie by mistake as the older information that is similar, has affected his ability to store new information
40
**Retroactive interference**
New information learnt interferes with our ability to recall older information that had been previously learnt
41
**Example** of **retroactive interference**
An economics teacher cannot remember the names of students from his old class as he is now teaching a new class
42
**Evaluate proactive interference - Evidence**
| Breif ARC
Underwood (1957) - Proactive Interference
A: To investigate the effects of learning multiple word lists on Ps ability to recall the one they most recently learned, 24 hours after doing so
R: Those who had learnt more word lists, struggled to recall the most recent list 24 hours later - Those who only learnt one word list, were 80% accurate with their recall
C: When Ps had to learn multiple word lists, the earlier word lists learnt, interfered with the recall of the later word lists
43
**Evaluate retroactive interference - Evidence**
| Brief APRC
Underwood & Potsman (1960) - Retroactive Interference
A: To investigate if Ps recall of a previously learnt word list, would be effected, by learning a new similar word list
P: Lab experiment. Ps were divided into two groups. Ps were asked to learn a list of words in pairs. The control group, only had to learn the first list. The experimental group had to learn a second word list afterwoods. With the first word being the same. Ex: In List 1, a word pair may have been cat-dirt. In List 2, a word pair may have been cat-tunnel. Both groups were then asked to recall the first word list.
R: The control group, (who only had to learn one list), performed far better with recall than the experimental group
C: Reason why experimental group struggled to remember first word list, was because of the first word in the pair was the same on both lists
44
**Evaluate interference theory - Limiations of the Evidence**
* Underwood and Potsman's study was carried out in a lab, meaning it lacks ecological validity - The task could also be said to lack mundane realism, as learning and recalling multiple similar word lists, is not an ordinary day to day task
*COUNTER ARGUEMENT: This allowed Underwood and Potsman to control extraneous variables, which helped establish a cause and effect relationship*
45
**Evaluate interference theory - Limiation**
* Only explains forgetting when information is similar
* Can't explain why forgetting occurs in the majority of real life situations - Limited application
* Also forgetting due to similarities doesn't happen that often, suggesting intereference theory is one component of a bigger explanation - And that it is also oversimplified
* The fact that there is evidence for cue-dependent forgetting, demonstrates that there are other explanations for forgetting
46
