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Animal Biology > 2. Evolution and diveristy > Flashcards

2. Evolution and diveristy Flashcards

1
Q

What is cladistics ?

A

classification of animals and plants through shared characteristics which have originated in the common ancestor of a group of species during evolution.

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2
Q

What should not be considered within cladistics when trying to find relationships?

A

CONVERGENCE - shared characteristics and features between organisms // PLESIMORPHY - characteristics sharpened by two or more species // both do not indicate evolution form a common ancestor

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3
Q

What are some principles of parsimony?

A

When there a multiple evolutionary trees possible, the most simple is accepted

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4
Q

What are meant by the cladistic classification :grades and clades ? ( give examples).

A

CLADE - monophyletic group which has only evolved once // a real evolutionary group e.g birds // GRADE - either paraphyletic or polyphyletic - grouped together via characters but are not each others closest relative e.g. vultures/ fish/ apes

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5
Q

What is meant by saturation with reference to molecular clocks?

A

Genes which evolve quicker than other and therefore overwrite each other// the sequence divergence is not linear over time

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6
Q

What is a molecular clock?

A

a measure of the number of changes or mutations which accumulate in the gene sequence of a species overtime

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7
Q

Give an example of where molecular data has changed our understanding of the history of life?

A

Understanding we share 65% of our DNA with bacteria

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8
Q

What molecular convergence ?

A

molecular convergence = evolutionary process where different species (not closely related ) share similar molecular features// may be due to similar environmental pressures

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9
Q

What is the difference between cladograms and phylograms?

A

They are both types of phylogenetic tree but CLADOGRAMS- show relationships and PHYLOGENETICS - show relationships in relation to molecular evidence

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10
Q

What is phylogeny?

A

the representation of the evolutionary history and relationship between groups of organisms // usually shown on a evolutionary tree

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11
Q

What is autapomorphy?

A

a biological term that refers to a distinctive feature that is unique to a specific organism or group// does not explain relationships between species

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12
Q

What are synapomorphy?

A

Shared derived characters// e.g. species A and B evolved a character once !

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13
Q

What are the two categories of characters of an organism?

A

PRIMITIVE - character is inherited from a common ancestor and the outgroup does not have this // DERVIVED - character is shared with the outgroup and has therefore evolved

*compare the species with the outgroup (distantly releated species) to classify the character

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14
Q

What are paraphyletic groups ?

A

Groups with share a primitive character (e.g. having scales) // often grouped by the absence of something

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15
Q

What is the difference between Monophylly and paraphyly groups ?

A

both sections of an evolutionary tree //
MONOPHYLYL - tree only gets cut once to gain a group(natural group ) // PARAPHYLYL- tree is cut twice to gain a group (artificial group)

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16
Q

What can be done to combat issues created through saturation within molecular clock analysis ?

A

try another gene/ try model DNA sequence evolution / use other kinds of molecular data

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17
Q

What are the two types of genetic substitutions?

A

TRANSITION- common and invisible therefore they do not change the protein function e.g. A<->G or C<-> T/// TRANSVERSIONS - rare, visible and therefore changes protein function (any e.g. not listed above)

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18
Q

what is an issue we face with fossil records and molecular clocks?

A

DNA decays extremely rapidly, meaning very little sequences can be extracted from extinct animals where they are only sourced in fossil records

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19
Q

What does it mean if a species have long branches on a phylogeny tree ?

A

Species evolved faster and therefore have accumulated more morphological changes and characters.

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20
Q

What was Parsimony’s experiment?

A

Compared actual ancestors with inferred ancestors and found 94% were correct therefor our understanding of common ancestors is good

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21
Q

What is a sterile individual?

A

one which does not reproduce e.g. worker bees

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22
Q

What does altruism refer to?

A

behaviour of an animal which benefits another at its own expense (more likely to evolve in a species which is very genetically similar)

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23
Q

What is eusociality ?

A

Some individuals in a group do not reproduce so they can help raise others offspring e.g. bees and naked mole rats

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24
Q

What did Dollo Parsimony propose?

A

Once a structure is lost it is to complex to be regained (once a structure is lost it is lost forever)

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25
What is meant by gradualism and punctuated equilibrium in evolutionary biology?
GRADUALISM -> evolution is a slow and steady process with small changes accumulating over time // supported by molecular clocks PUCTUATED EQUILIBRIUM ->evolution occurs in short bursts of rapid change separated by long periods of stability
26
What is the principle of parsimony?
when considering multiple explanations for a phenomenon, the simplest explanation is usually the most likely to be correct,
27
What types of analyses of molecular data can be use to describe and quantify diversity?
DNA barcoding / haplotype network/ Genetic Distance / Population Genomics/ SNPs/ Phylognetic analysis
28
What is meant by species richness?
a measure of the number of different species in a specific area
29
What are different methods we cam use to measure genetic variation?
1.qauntify number of alleles and variation // 2. allele frequency data using population genetic analysis // 3. DNA sequence data // 4. Use phylogenetic trees
30
What is meant by neutral variation ?
no selection or mating bias is occurring however there is still demographic changes
31
What is an allozyme?
provides data of enzyme band in patterns, each band reflects a different allele// allows us to calculate allele frequencies
32
How do you calculate allele frequencies ?
1. count the number of alleles in each genotype 2. divide this by the number of copies in population *homozygous alleles will have higher frequencies as they are present twice in each genotype
33
What is the issue with allozymes ?
measures phenotypes (uses enzymes therefore measuring's the expression of genes) not genotypes -> therefore these phenotypes could be under selection and be changing
34
Why is PCR successfully used in labs?
we can compare many loci and alleles quickly and cheaply // can understand population structures under selection and estimate these alleles function
35
What is a microsatellite and what can they tell us?
a short repeated sequence of DNA //
36
What is operational taxonomic units?
a grouping of closely related organisms, typically defined based on a set level of similarity in their DNA sequence
37
Give some examples of non-neutral processess?
any evolutionary mechanism that is not driven purely by chance E.G. Inbreeding and selection
38
What is a microbiome?
A community of microorganism associated with a host, it is very evident that it is vital in organisms health
39
What is meat by functional redundancy ?
a situation where multiple species within an ecosystem perform essentially the same ecological function, meaning if one species were to decline or disappear, another could potentially take over its role,
40
What was the BIODEPTH experiment (ecosystem functioning)?
1999 Europe // looked at the number of species present in the test area , finding with increased species richness you gain increased ecosystem functioning (productivity)
41
What is meant by complementarity in species?
increased species community -> increases probability that they will belong to different functioning groups -> increases resource-use // e.g. plants utilize similar recourses so correspond uses to compliment each other via space and time
42
What is meant by facilitation among species?
some species facilitate others (have a positive effect o an ecosystem role played by another species). e.g. walnut polyculture - trees provide shelter for the wheat from wind, rain and extreme environments promoting growth
43
What is a functional trait?
A phenotype or characteristic of an organism which defines its fitness and influence its survival . e.g. feeding strategies
44
What is meta-analysis ?
The analysis of trends over multiple investigations/ experiments
45
What is the selection effect hypothesis ?
species -rich community's may be more productive due to one species being especially productive// therefore it is the species selected in a experiment which controls the productiveness analysed
46
What additional factors should be considered when looking at ecological productivity?
Geology and soil type/ atmospheric inputs/ hydrology/ topography/ human management / vegetation structure / other tropic levels/ soil depth
47
What is involved in discovering and describing new species?
1. know the species has not already been described// 2. Latin binomial // 3. diagnosis - so we can recognise it // 4. description - usually of anatomy // 5. type of specimen identified // 6. taxonomists describe it
48
What are some pattern of discovery in taxonomic groups?
taxonomists are now going extinct- there is less skilled and knowledgeable people in this field making species identification much harder
49
What are some methods used to estimate the number of species ?
1. extrapolating from number of described species // 2. canopy frogging - take a tree and count the number of species within this tree then multiply by the number of trees //
50
What is DNA barcoding?
the identification of a species by the characteristic sequence of a standard short section of DNA in its genome.// understand if species are related or seperat
51
What does taxonomy mean?
Discovery, description and identification of species
52
What are systematics ?
Relationships among species
53
What is species richness? How can it be used in conservation strategies?
The number of species within a habitat // used when logging to understand the magnitude of impact
54
What factors are considered during conservation management ?
Species richness// priorities of conservation // community composition over space and time // ecosystem functions
54
What does inbreeding depressions describe what does this mean?
reduction in genetic diveristy // more homozygotes (heterozygotes are thought to have more adaptive potential therefore are more beneficial
55
Why does biodiveristy matter for conservation?
allows us to understand the impact on destroying habitats // understand interlinks between species- healthy environments provides food... positive feedback loops // promote genetic fitness // better diversity = better recovery after destructive events
56
How can genetic be used to inform conservation management decision? what example applied this?
African wild dogs at risk of extinction due to inbreeding and habitat loss creating a loss of genetic diversity , understanding this can allow selective breeding to take place increasing genetic fitness again
57
What are some ways species are defined for conservation?
Biological species- > groups of interbreeding populations // ecological species -> organisms adapted to a set of resources // phylogenetic species -> share evolutionary history , distinguished via shared ancestors // evolutionary significant units -> number of genetically distinct populations deserving separate protective measures
58
How an functional diveristy be incorporated into conservation management ?
e.g. in Serengeti mara ecosystem the movement and abundance of wildebeests is driven by the functional diveristy of available plant species, therefore we can manage the ecosystems of grass to impact the wildebeest movement// prioritise conservation strategies which maintain and enhance ecosystem functions
59
What can we study using genetic markers ?
Habitat fragmentation //Understanding the source of recolonising populations //Understanding the stability of diversity over time// Tracking origins of captive populations
60
What is the two main theories of why different species of the same common ancestor are different? (rate/ date )
is the diveristy due to one species being older or one species evolving at a faster rate
61
How can we determine the date of an evolutionary event?
molecular clocks // fossils- extrapolating a sister organism if we are missing fossil records // biogeography (geographical events and there relation to biological species we know)// presence of hosts and parasites - we assume the parasites have cospeciating (habited different species at the same time rather than switching hosts)
62
What are some different defined rates of evolution?
gradualism -> small changes over a long period of time // punctuated equilibrium - different changes occurring at very different rates// founders event - isolation of a group from ancestors leading to speciation
63
What is a simple calculation we can use to measure the amount of evolution?
RATE X TIME slow rate = lots of time fast rate = little time
64
What scientist is thought to of made the link between geography and biology?
Alfred Wegner understood continental drift and explained Pangea -- continental drift can explain the unusual distribution of species we see today
65
How can we test different hypotheses of biographic history ?
comparing evolutionary trees with geographical history
66
What is stream capture?
A geological phenomenon when a stream/ river changes its course , diverting water flow into a bed of neighbouring stream usually a consequence of erosion
67
What geological landform does Hawaii exemplify?
Hotpots, where mantel plumes from earth ore rise to the earths crusts forming new islands from the sea bed
68
Where is the san andrenas fault?
runs through California, from the Salton Sea in the south to Cape Mendocino in the nor
69
What is vicariance ?
when environmental changes divide a species' range, even though the species remains in place. It can happen when tectonic plates move, or when mountain ranges rise or rivers change course
70
What are some examples of geographical events which may alter species distribution ?
continental drift /island hotspot formation/ river capture / tsunamis/ rising sea levels...
71

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