2. Colonial Policy and Administration Flashcards
What did Britain regard its dominions as after WW2?
Regarded as Britain’s most reliable friends, tied to Britain by common interest and cultural ties
How did the Dominions regard Britain after WW2?
The Dominions had their own interests and were prepared to assert separated identities
What military pact implied that the USA had taken over Britain’s responsibilities in the Pacific?
The 1951 ANZUS military pact - Australia, New Zealand and the USA
What was the new Commonwealth that Atlee hoped to build?
An association of free, independent states which would go beyond race, colour and belief
Surrendering costs of formal control whilst maintaining informal ties to protect Britain’s global economic interests/influence
How were the Commonwealth countries united?
United by their history instead of having legal obligation to one another
3 problems of trying to build the Commonwealth
Britain couldn’t offer enough reward for association in form of trade, investment and defence
Talk of racial partnership didn’t appeal to white South Africans (apartheid)
Different governments with differing views throughout Commonwealth
The importance of the Sterling Area to Britain / British imperial ties (5)
Almost all Dominions and other countries used pound sterling and banked their overseas earnings in London, helping to maintain the value of the currency
Britain remained most important market for most members of sterling area
IMPORTANT) In 1947, various measures tied the sterling area members to a common trade policy, obliging them to purchase more of their imports from Britain
IMPORTANT) Exceeded the dollar area as it made up 1/4 of the world population and trade
Britain’s hopes for its African colonies
Supply Britain with mineral wealth and source of men armed forces to replace Indian army
Development of colonial economies to boost purchasing power of colonial consumers to help compensate for markets lost during WW2
In 1950 how many troops was Africa estimated to provide for an imperial army?
1950 - estimated that Africa could provide 400,000 troops for an imperial army
What 1945 British Act assisted colonial development?
Colonial Development and Welfare Act 1945 allocated £120m over 10 years to assist the colonies’ development
Further Act in 1948 that were established to improve the living standards in the colonies
1948 Act - Colonial Development Corporation and the Overseas Food Corporation
What is meant by the term ‘the second colonial occupation’?
Britain urgently needed raw materials so British ‘experts’ descended on Africa with schemes for agricultural development (E.g. TGS)
Aggressive approach - known as ‘economic colonialism’
Britain wanted to maintain the empire and its role as a global power
How was the TGS a failure?
Cost Britain £36 million and failed to provide oil or employment
What did the Labour government claim about its colonial rule?
Claimed it had abolished the old type of capitalist imperialism
Notion to raise colonial standards of living, and stress was continually placed on the mutual benefits for Britons and colonial peoples
The reality of the Labour governments colonial policy
Exploited its colonies: restricting investment, controlling trade and prices of their main commodities rationing the goods they could purchase from Britain
Sometimes it led to giving less rather than more power to indigenous leaders
Between 1945-51 the colonies were forced to lend Britain more money than Britain actually invested in the colonies
Was the labour government successful in its colonial rule?
Not at all:
- led to exploitations
- not fulfilling the claimed aims
- TGS was a complete failure
- colonies led more money to Britain than they invested
How/why did the Labour government reform Britain’s colonies in West Africa? (4)
Aware that WW2 led to need for more representative government
Tried to convey the idea of working in collaboration with nationalists
System of universal suffrage to elect an assembly introduced in the Gold Coast but British authorities continued to control finance, police and civil service
Nigeria pressed for more political participation
Result of the political reforms introduced in West Africa by Attlee’s government
Helped get colonial politicians in position to remove British rule
The African independence was gathering momentum so there was very little his government could do to stop it
2 reasons why Malaya was economically important to the British government post-WW2
Produced 1/3 of the world’s tin and huge amounts of rubber
Rubber alone earned more currency than all Britain’s domestic exports to the US in the 1940s
Who was the Labour Foreign Secretary post-WW2?
Ernest Bevin
Why was the Middle East so important to Britain according to Ernest Bevin?
Oil and the Suez Canal
Central to imperial defence
Ernest Bevin’s aims in the Middle East
Wanted area to stay in British sphere of influence
Wanted to keep Russian influence away
Tried to maintain British hegemony (dominance) by cooperating with the Arab states in the region
Ways in which the labour government was successful in developing the Commonwealth and Empire from 1945-51
Successful in developing Commonwealth but not Empire
Commonwealth allowed Britain to maintain some influence in regions that were strategically or economically valuable
Ways in which the labour government was unsuccessful in developing the Commonwealth and Empire from 1945-51
Its attempted development of the Empire wasn’t very successful as the attempts at economic reform were either a complete failure or were exploitive
Old Dominions turned to the USA for support
When was Churchill in power (2nd time)?
1951-55
Churchill’s aims for the British Empire
Preserve the Commonwealth and Empire
Self-government within the Commonwealth
Problems that Churchill’s government faced regarding imperial policy
The state of the British economy - recovering from international competition
Britain was carrying too many foreign responsibilities according to the Treasury
Jettisoning (abandoning) overseas commitments would be damaging to Britain’s international status and economy
3 ways that Churchill’s government was at an advantage in its imperial policy
USA more concerned with spread of communism than decolonisation
USSR not deeply involved outside Europe - Britain able to maintain its position with little external pressure
Churchill and central Africa
Attlee and Churchill both supported establishment of CAF which was formed in 1953. Gave white minority self-rule
How did Churchill’s government approach Egypt and the Suez Canal?
1951 - Britain had 40,000 troops in Suez Canal Zone
Churchill regarded the Suez base as being of vital importance
Early 1952 - riots in Cairo where British business promises were destroyed
1952 - Egyptian army officers seized power
By 1953, Britain’s military leaders agreed that the Suez was no longer essential due to India
July 1954 - agreement that British troops would be withdrawn
To what extent did imperial policy change under Churchill 1951-55? - did change
Accepted Britain’s withdrawal from Sudan and Suez
Kenya made into a police state
Churchill more of an imperialist in his attitudes
To what extent did imperial policy change under Churchill 1951-55? - didn’t change
Continued acceptance of independence in West Africa
Clung on to colonies they thought were economically and strategically viable, let go of those that weren’t
Key developments in the relationship between Britain and Egypt: 1952
Colonel Nasser comes to power through military coup
Key developments in the relationship between Britain and Egypt: 1953
British government makes agreement with Nasser of the steps to Sudan’s independence
Key developments in the relationship between Britain and Egypt: 1954
Britain agreed to phased withdrawal of troops from Suez Canal Zone
In return the Egyptians agreed to allow Britain free access through the Suez Canal and to maintain occupation of bases in the operational condition
Key developments in the relationship between Britain and Egypt: 1955
Baghdad Agreement where Britain makes treaty with Turkey, Pakistan, Iraq and Persia to repel Soviet threat in the Middle East
Nasser refuses to join and signs arms deal with Czech (communist) instead - makes Eden furious
Key developments in the relationship between Britain and Egypt: 1956
Nassar plans to construct Aswan High Dam. Britain and US withdraw funding due to Czech arms deal and the USSR funds the project instead
Nassar announces the nationalisation of the Suez Canal and publicly denounces British imperialism
Timeline of key developments in relationship between Britain and Egypt between 1952 and 1956
1952 - Nassar comes to power
1953 - Agreement for Sudan’s independence
1954 - Agreement to withdraw British troops from Suez Canal Zone
1955 - Baghdad Agreement and Nassar’s agreement with Czech
1956 - Nationalisation of Suez Canal and USSR agreeing to fund Aswan High Dam
What was the name of the secret plan between Britain, France and Israel during the Suez Crisis?
The Sèvres Protocol
Despite the UN’s attempts to resolve the issues in the Suez, what did Eden feel?
Eden became more aggressive and wanted to have Nasser removed due to links with USSR and aims to become leader of Arab world
Why were Israel and France involved in the Suez Crisis?
France had shares in the Suez Canal and were also against Nasser’s encouragement of Algerian nationalism
Israel wanted to weaken the power of its Arab neighbour
The Sevres Protocol
A secret plan between Britain, France and Israel whereby:
- Israel would invade Egypt
- France and Britain would demand a ceasefire and the withdrawal of troops from the Suez Canal Zone
- Britain and France would invade the Suez Canal Zone to defend it
What happened during the invasion of the Suez Canal by Israel, France and Britain? (5 steps)
- The Israelis invaded Egypt
- The Egyptians refused to agree to a ceasefire
- British and French troops invade the Suez Canal Zone
- Egyptian resistance was fierce and Nassar called for ships to be sunk to block the Suez Canal
- Britain was met with international disapproval for its actions
Why did Britain have to withdraw its troops and hand over the police action to the UN? (5)
- Miscalculation of international reaction, especially that of USA
- Aggressive guerrilla campaign forced Britain to withdraw 80,000 troops from the Suez Canal Zone
- Shortage of oil due to the blocked canal and withdrawal of international investment and trade led to a sterling currency crisis
- USA only agreed to financially help Britain if they withdrew so British announced a ceasefire and allowed a UN force to move in to restore peace
What consequences of the Suez Crisis suggest that Britain was no longer a world power as a result of it? (4)
Britain needed approval of the US for its imperial and international affairs
Nationalist movements knew that if they pushed hard enough they could bring a British withdrawal
Dispelled the notion that Britain could manage and control its retreat from Empire
Britain could no longer use military force as a way of maintaining control
What consequences of the Suez Crisis suggest that Britain was undamaged and still a world power as a result of it? (4)
Despite Eden’s resignation as a result of the Crisis, the Conservative Gov won the 1959 election
Relations with US were quickly restored due to Britain’s importance to the US as an ally in the Cold War
Britain continued to dominate in parts of the Arabian Gulf
Britain still had a great military presence in the Middle East and around the world until the late 1960s
Quote from Selwyn Lloyd (Eden’s Foreign Secretary) about the Suez Crisis
“Suez became an excuse. It was a scapegoat for what was happening to Britain in the world”
Who took over Eden in 1957?
Macmillan
Macmillan’s views of the Empire: public vs private
Public:
- No plans for an abrupt withdrawal from the Empire as he believe Britain was a could remain a great world power
- Denied any intention to give up the Empire
Private:
- He believed his responsibility was to be the liquidator of Empire
- Wanted to hand over power to colonies that were ready
The appointment of which individual as the colonial secretary suggests that Macmillan’s government intended to decolonise the Empire?
The appointment of Macleod who sympathised with African aspirations and favoured rapid decolonisation to avoid bloodshed.
Unclear whether he was just following Macmillan or whether those were his stand alone views
What did Macmillan do in 1960 which triggered his famous speech?
He went on a 6-week tour of Africa and spoke to the SA parliament in Cape Town
Macmillan’s famous speech
The Wind of Change speech on 3rd February 1960
“The wind of change […] was blowing through this continent”
It has to be an accepted fact that black majority rule is coming to the continent
To what extent was the Wind of Change speech a significant turning point?
The Conservative Party has accepted decolonisation and the end of British control in Africa even though they had been traditionally imperialist
However, decolonisation had already been taking place (E.g. India and Ghana)
Impact of the collapse of French and Belgian colonies in Africa on the British Empire during the late 1960s (Macmillan)
Made it harder to sustain a case for delay
Britain was left in embarrassing position of appearing more illiberal than France
In what ways did the Cold War further encourage Macmillan to consider rapid decolonisation?
Charges of imperialism and racism were weapons in the Cold War and he didn’t want to alienate 3rd world opinion
Feared the spread of communism (colonies turning to communism in order to push British away)
In 1960, Russian intervention in Africa seemed imminent (inevitable)
Why was it difficult for politicians who opposed decolonisation to rouse the support of the British public?
Most Conservatives accepted decolonisation
By the early 1960s few Britons thought the Empire was worth fighting for
The media was predominantly liberal and frowned on coercive methods of maintaining control
The public was more concerned with bread and butter issues
Those on the left saw decolonisation as a good thing
Those on the right saw it as regretful but inevitable
To what extent was growing nationalism the main reason Macmillan came to accept the Wind of Change (1957-63)? - large extent (3)
Didn’t want to spend money on controlling/policing nationalism
Mau Mau rebellion had shown the British the extent of dangers of nationalism
Nkrumah encouraged independence movements elsewhere
To what extent was growing nationalism the main reason Macmillan came to accept the Wind of Change (1957-63)? - small extent (4)
Decolonisation elsewhere made it harder to justify retaining colonies
Changing attitudes of British people
International opinion
The Cold War
