2. Christians in the Post-Apostolic Age

Question 1

Questions about Christianity

Answer 1

Christian communities attracted attention of their pagan neighbours because of marked differences.

They had a distinct life within Judaism, and when they were kicked out of the Temple/synagogue, they had their own distinct life. They were no longer tolerated by Jews. Jews were exempt from the Emperor cult (pagan religion that worships Roman Emperors), but because the Christians were no longer Jewish, they were no longer exempt from the Emperor cult.

Question 2

Hostility from Pagans, Romans & Jews (what you don’t understand, you oppose)…

Answer 2

Christians as neither Jewish nor cultic led to hostility from the Pagans, Romans & Jews.

The basis of hostility: the Christians’ claim to absolute truth clashed with Roman State religion and with classical and Roman culture.

Question 3

Big 5 Charges Against Christinas

Answer 3

atheism, apostasy, treason, incest, cannibalism

Question 4

Christians were accused of (1) Apostasy, (2) Incest, (3) Cannibalism

Answer 4

Accused of Apostacy: The Christians were apostatized (accused of atheism) by Jews (hostility fed by Jews of the diaspora who never forgave their fellow citizens for their apostasy) and by Romans (Christians would not offer the sacrifices to the Roman gods, including the emperors living and dead)

Accused of Incest: The Christians gathered at night (to celebrate the Lord’s Supper), and because they were gathering at night, they were accused of doing immoral things…with their brothers and sister.

Accused of Cannibalism: At their meals they ate the flesh and drank the blood of a child victim of some ritual sacrifice. Thus, they were accused of cannibalism.

Question 5

What are the 2 literary genres of the post-apostolic age?

Answer 5

polemics & apologetics

Question 6

Literary Polemics Against Christianity

animosity toward Christians developed on the intellectual plane

Answer 6

Polemics are arguments against the Christians. They demonstrate some knowledge of Christianity, but also ignorance. They are often based in philosophical principles but are aggressive and unfavourable.

150 CE: Mocking Speeches (pamphlets and books were used to carry on a literary campaign against Christians)

Question 7

Example of a Polemicist

Answer 7

Celsus
Philosopher who wrote in the 180s, and polemics hit its peak.

His religious beliefs centred on a philosophical creed which rejected monotheism but tolerated popular religions and mystery cults. He felt all religions should correspond to his philosophical approach and since Christianity did not, it had to be subjected to examination.

Celsus demonstrated a knowledge of Christianity, Scripture and other Christian writings, including some Jewish polemics against Christianity, so it seems he had personally known some Christians.

His writings were highly aggressive and he gave unfavourable picture of the daily lives of Christians. Example: Aletheos Logos (True Discourse in English).

Question 8

Early Christian Apologies

Answer 8

Christians responded to polemics with apologies. Apology means “speech for the defence” (apo logos in Greek → “from the word”).

The apologists are Greek writers from 120-220. Latin was still the official language but Greek was more common in daily use .

Question 9

4 Reasons for Apologies:

Answer 9

( 1 ) Respond to attackers (specifically, polemicists) to give a true picture of Christianity.
( 2 ) Give Christians solid teachings so, as the Church was expanding, they would have a reference point
( 3 ) Lessen the hostility by addressing the assumptions that pagans have about Christians
( 4 ) Aid the missionary work of the Church (a name to spread the faith)

Question 10

Some Noteworthy Apologists

Answer 10

Quadratus of Athens (martyred 124, from Athens)
Probably the first apologist (perhaps bishop of Athens; maybe the Quadratus called “saint” by Eusebius).

Justin Martyr (martyred 165 under Marcus Aurelius)
He reaches a high level of “apologia” (apologetics) in his learned works because he was a learned person himself (a philosopher and teacher).
Eusebius mentions eight works but only two examples survive:
1. Letter to Antonius Pius and others
2. Dialogue with Trypho

Question 11

Summary of the Apologists

Answer 11

The writings of the apologists show considerable development in thought in theology (made up words like trinity, Incarnation).

The writings advanced the understanding of Scripture.

The writings give insight into the inner life of the early Church (e.g. liturgy, missionary activity, Church-state relations).

Apologists do not give a complete exposition of Christian belief, but rather, respond to attackers and issues.

Question 12

Period of Persecutions

Answer 12

The first persecutions of the Christians were by Jewish people (it was Jews who stoned Stephen to death) and by pagans writing polemics, and the Romans only stepped in to keep the peace.

Some persecutions were local and some were empire-wide.

Despite this, the general population came to a gradual awareness that Christians were rejecting the State religion.Constantine feared that this would jeopardize the State, its peace and security. This would be the driving force behind most of the persecutions up to the time of Constantine (throughout this period up to early 4thC).

One clear exception would be Nero.

Question 13

4 Important Clarifications: there were resulting persecutions, but it is important to remember…

Answer 13

1. Exaggeration: some writers, even Eusebius, exaggerated the persecutions, specifically, the roles of emperors and governors.
2. Local Persecutions: some persecutions just happened on the local level, with or without the emperor’s approval.
3. Non-Christians: Some of the persecutions were also directed at non-Christians.
4. Disputes w/ Jews/Pagans: some problems were disputes between Christians and Jews, and Christians and pagans, and the Romans only stepped in to keep the peace.

Question 14

Acts of the Martyrs (Eusebius)

Answer 14

Johannes Quasten (1900-1987)
Jesuit Priest that studies the Acts of the Martyrs by Eusebius. Eusebius has large tracts of these accounts in his Ecclesiastical History. The entire version was found in his Collection (Acts) of the Martyrs which has been lost 

These sources are critical for history –> no study of the Church can be complete without study of Acts of the Martyrs

Quasten’s study gives us three types/accounts of persecutions…

1. Official Court Proceedings
2. The Passion Account
3. Legends of the Martyrs

Question 15

3 Types of Accounts of Persecutions

Answer 15

1. Official Court Proceedings (i.e. acta)
   Questions addressed to martyrs and their answers
   Written by Roman officials (notaries, public or clerks)
   Placed in public archives
2. The Passion Accounts
   Reports of eyewitnesses or contemporaries of the events.
3. Legends of the Martyrs
   Composed long after the events for edification. Mixture of truth and some purely imaginative details
   (but no intention to deceive, only to edify so that we want to live up to their model)

Question 16

three types/accounts of persecutions:

Answer 16

1. Official Court Proceedings
2. The Passion Account
3. Legends of the Martyrs

Question 17

Detailed look at The Martyrs of Lyons (and Vienne)

Background/Text

Answer 17

Letter written in Greek in 177. An eye-witness account (not court reportings or a legend).

Letter is addressed by Christians at Lyons and Vienne in Gaul. They had summer games in Gaul, where Lyons and Vienne were located. These summer games provided opportunities for persecuting Christians.

Sent to Christian relatives in Asia Minor to narrate and publicize the events regarding the persecutions. Included the trials and executions of a group of the faithful from both communities which took place at Lyons c. 177

The Christian community at Lyons and Vienne are probably the oldest Christian community outside of Rome. This is one of the many texts which gives us a glimpse of the early life of the Church and stories of heroism and faith. Meant to edify and give encouragement; how the cult of martyrs was started (edifies the cult of Chirstian martyrs and saints).

Question 18

Detailed look at The Martyrs of Lyons (and Vienne)

Emperor Marcus Aurelius

Answer 18

Marcus Aurelius’ Rationale:

He was a Stoic philosopher and believed Christians “threw themselves away” for an illusion; he scorned them for this.

Rescript of 176/177 enacted to protect the State from “fanatical sectaries” and “hitherto unknown cults” (referring to Christians). It was not directly written against Christians, but used against them by some local leaders.

Strong animosity was directed against the Christians in this period for wrong reasons. Romans were unhappy and took it out on the Christians .

Question 19

Detailed look at The Martyrs of Lyons (and Vienne)

The Source

Answer 19

The text from Eusebius as we saw earlier (Greek in origin) from a Greek culture to Greek-speaking people
It is quoted by Eusebius; this attests to the authenticity of the text
One tradition says that Irenaeus, the successor of Pothinus who died in this persecution, carried a copy of the letter about the martyrs to Rome
Musurillo believes an editor re-worked the original, or primitive, document sometime in 3rdC, “lending the earlier account a vividness and excitement of its own”
Musurillo dates it around 260-290, he believes it was circulated during the persecution of Decius to inspire those undergoing persecution at that time

Question 20

Detailed look at The Martyrs of Lyons (and Vienne)

The Account of the Event

Answer 20

Began with the exclusion of Christians from public baths and forums (bathrooms). Spontaneous mob violence on occasion, in which Christians were arrested and imprisoned, and then the tortures and trials began. The tortures climaxed during the August Festival of the Three Gauls held at Lyons in 177, which coincided with the Roman festival of imperial cult.

Some trials were public, and some private. They included violent torture of Christians.

Question 21

Detailed look at The Martyrs of Lyons (and Vienne): Importance of the Letter

Answer 21

Proof of a Christian community outside of Rome at this early time.

Insight into the lives of Christians in the Roman Empire (specifically, the tortures, legalistics, general attitudes of the population, etc.)

Hints of Communion in the early Church (not Holy Communion; but communion of people in Lyons and Vienne with their relatives and friends back in Asia Minor)

Later, it became important for Christians to know not to lose hope, and that it is worth hanging onto faith (this is the prediction in Revelations)
The only prediction in the Book of Revelations is that Christ will prevail
There are still martyrs today; and more martyrs in the 2oth century than in any time before (Christian and non-Christian).

Question 22

How is the Church organized? When did this begin to take shape?

Answer 22

Monarchical Episcopate (Three-Fold Hierarchy: Priests, Deacons and Bishops). Parishes and Congregations, Synods, Patriarchs.

These things all begin to take shape in the post-apostolic era.

Question 23

Second Century Developments of Church Life and Ministries

Answer 23

Individual Congregations More Clearly Defined

Church Becomes Organized: Three-Fold Office (150: Monarchical Episcopate)

Theology for Office was Developed

Question 24

Second Century Developments:

Individual Congregations More Clearly Defined

Answer 24

Mass was becoming too crowded, and Priests were designated to lead Mass, and a fraction of the Bishop’s host was sent to each community to be shared
Congregation comes from “joining together”
Joining together of believers as distinct from Judaism
The vital, compact unity of Christian congregations seen as a possession to be guarded
“Communion” was the opposite of “schism”
The great enemy of unity and communion

Question 25

Second Century Developments:

Church Becomes Organized: Three-Fold Office

Answer 25

Clement’s Letter to the Corinthians reflected Church organization (so, too, did the writings of Polycarp of Smyrna, successor to John the Apostle).

Leaders divided into two groups:
Elders/Presbyters (presbyteros/oi) and Overseers (episkopos/oi)
Terms used interchangeably for priests and bishops (e.g. Priest is overseer of a congregation, Bishop is overseer of all congregations in a community)
Deacons (diakonos/oi)
Remember: Ignatius of Antioch (+ c. 107) distinguished three groups: (1) overseers or bishops (2) elders or presbyters (3) deacons

Question 26

Second Century Developments:

150: Monarchical Episcopate

Answer 26

By 150, the monarchical episcopate was the norm in the Church.

1. One “bishop” or “overseer” was appointed as the highest office-holder in each local Church
2. He was assisted by presbyters and 3. deacons

Bishops were seen as fulfilling their office through apostolic origin/succession, and the guidance of the Holy Spirit BUT the work of the Holy Spirit was not limited to the leaders.

There was a respect for mutuality . Therefore, there was no rivalry or competition. Organization is also seen in Paul’s letters.

Question 27

Second Century Developments:

Theology for Office Developed

Answer 27

We looked at theology before as “faith seeking understanding” as concepts from the Scripture are put into words. This promoted a deeper understanding.

Theology about “office” in the Church: how the Church understands the call to leadership, living it out, etc.

At no time were all the apostles wiped out before bishops could succeed them, and at no time were all bishops wiped out before they could be succeeded
It is an uninterrupted succession.

Question 28

Examples for the development of theology in the 2nd century

Answer 28

Clement of Rome (101):

• Authority based on Christ’s commission to the apostles
• Governance derived from uninterrupted succession

Ignatius of Antioch (107):
- Bond between a bishop and his congregation
- A bond is developed among congregations in one organic reality, Christ is the principle of life who enlivens the congregation, and the bishop is the symbol of unity among congregations in a local Church (diocese)
- All congregations formed “communion” as the new people of God
(Jews have always been the people of God, but the Church is the new community with God)

• Ignatius was the first to use the term “Catholic” (universal in time and space)
• New international community called “the Catholic Church”

Question 29

Christian Unity and Catholicity

8 Proofs for this Developing Reality:

Answer 29

1. Bishops, priests, deacons and missionaries were received with great hospitality everywhere Christians lived
2. Active correspondence among congregations in which news was exchanged, joys and sorrows shared
3. Long journeys were undertaken so important questions of religion could be discussed
4. Development of a “rule of faith” impressed upon new members at Baptism
5. Loyalty to the tradition of the faith seen as part of the “rule of faith” and the unity in worship
6. Uniformity of worship established for the Eucharist
7. Bishops had responsibility for the whole Church, not just their own congregations
8. Solicitude for other congregations in need

Question 30

Third Century Developments:

Answer 30

Office of Bishop Gains Power
The Role of Presbyters Expands
Deacons
Lower Ranks of Clergy 
Structures within Local Churches

Question 31

Third Century Developments: Developments in Church Organization

Answer 31

Ecclesiastical provinces took shape and synods were implemented

Question 32

Ecclesiastical Provinces

Answer 32

How dioceses were organized in larger groups so that there could be more of a structure (e.g. archdiocese)

Question 33

Synod

Answer 33

Comes from the Greek meaning “together on the road.”

A system of synods was put in place to give a new and intense impetus for “orthodoxy” (to ensure they are in communion with each other).

Orthodoxy: ortho means “correct”; doxy means “teaching.” In the original and most basic sense, it meant following the Liturgy according to the way the Church intends.

Question 34

Third Century Developments:

Office of Bishop Gains Power

Answer 34

Bishop: undisputed leader of the ecclesial community.

The episcopal office increasingly consolidated and gained prestige.

Proclaimed faith through preaching. Emphasized purity of faith (e.g., correct performance of the liturgy).

Represented the community in relations with other Churches.

Guarded Church discipline for the observance of the Christian ideal.

Guided and organized the work of charity within the local Church.

Question 35

Third Century Developments:

The Role of Presbyters Expands

Answer 35

Presbyters: advisors and associates of the bishops. Focused on administration.

They represented the bishop in his absence. Priestly functions were exercised as needed (e.g., presiding at Eucharist, Baptisms, Penance)

Question 36

Third Century Developments:

Deacons

Answer 36

Deacons: chief assistants to the bishops, and focused on works of charity.

Note: women were assisting in celebrations of Baptism (modesty) but never ordained for this role.

Question 37

Third Century Developments:

Lower Ranks of Clergy

Answer 37

Appointed by bishops, and mostly functioned within the Liturgy or in works of charity.

Question 38

Third Century Developments:

Structures within Local Churches

Answer 38

Bishops were seen as holders of ecclesiastical properties in trust for the good of the WHOLE Church.

Communities received pastors of their own, and parishes took shape on their own (but were always seen as subject to the bishop).

Question 39

Spirituality centred on the Church

Answer 39

How the Church talked about itself, in a sense, in prayers and devotions. Maternal images of the Church became common in theology (Mother Ecclesia: Mother Church).

Question 40

Intention of Spirituality

Answer 40

Striving for perfection.

Question 41

Expressions of spirituality in the Church:

Answer 41

Baptismal Spirituality
Devotion to Martyrdom
Asceticism
Prayer and Fasting

Question 42

Expressions of spirituality in the Church:

Baptismal Spirituality:

Answer 42

Living day-to-day modelled on Christ’s example to cultivate God-given grace

Question 43

Expressions of spirituality in the Church:

Devotion to Martyrdom:

Answer 43

Imitating the sacrifice of Christ

Question 44

Expressions of spirituality in the Church:

Asceticism:

Answer 44

Giving up marriage for service to the Church and Christian community (celibacy). The models for this were Jesus and Paul

Eventually led to monasticism.

Seen in Clement’s letter; apologists testified to existence of celibates; Ignatius of Antioch referred to a group of virgins.

Question 45

Expressions of spirituality in the Church:

Prayer and Fasting:

Answer 45

Seen as essential elements of Christian worship by 3rd C.

Continuation of some Jewish practices.

Connected to liturgical worship and private devotion (prayers and daily communion with God)

Included weekly fasts (Wednesdays and Fridays) but also as preparation for great feast of Easter or for Baptism.