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Pathology > 2 - Cell Growth And Differentiation > Flashcards

2 - Cell Growth And Differentiation Flashcards

1
Q

This is the process of increase in size resulting from the synthesis of specific tissue components

A

Growth

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2
Q

True or False.

Growth may be applied to populations, individuals, organs, cells or even subcellular organelles such as mitochondria.

A

True

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3
Q

Four types of growth in a tissue

A
  1. Multiplicative
  2. Auxetic
  3. Accretionary
  4. Combined patterns of multiplicative, auxetic and accretionary growth
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4
Q

This is a type of growth where there is increase in number of somatic cells (mitosis) and gametocytes) (meiosis)

A

Multiplicative

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5
Q

This type of growth is present in all tissues

A

Multiplicative

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6
Q

This is a type of growth where there is increase in size of the cell

A

Auxetic

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7
Q

An example of this type of growth is muscle growth.

A

Auxetic

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8
Q

This is the type of growth where increase in intercellular components/ground substance

A

Accretionary

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9
Q

An example of this growth include cartilage and bone (collagen, ECM, GS and elastin amount).

A

Accretionary

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10
Q

An example of this growth is embyological development.

A

Combined patterns of multiplicative, auxeti camd accretionary growth

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11
Q

This is the process where by a cell develops an overt specialized function or mophology that distinguishes it from its parent cell
(example: overt function of the cilia)

A

Differentiation

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12
Q

This is the process by which genes are expressed selectively and gene products act to produce a cell with a specialized function

A

Differentitation

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13
Q

Cells undergo this process in their passage to fully differentiation cells, such as the ciliated epithelial cells lining the respiratory passages of the nose and trachea

A

Differentiation

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14
Q

Three cell fates

A
  1. Proliferation
  2. Differentiation
  3. Apoptosis
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15
Q

This is determined by the net balance between proliferation, differentiation and apoptosis

A

Growth rate

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16
Q

Parameter for studying cell growth

A
  1. Cell cycle
  2. Group of cells according to proliferative potential
  3. Growth factors
  4. Cellular adaptation
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17
Q

Different phase of cell cycle

A 
G0 phase
G1 (Gap 1) phase
S phase
G2 phase
M (mitotitic) phase
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18
Q

This is a tightly regulated process of cell growth that is continuous unless the cell dies

A

Cell cycle

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19
Q

True or False.

The activation of a phase depends on the completion of the previous stage

A

True

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20
Q

Main purpose of cell cycle

A

DNA replication

Cell division

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21
Q

A problematic cell may _____________.

A

Go back, undergo apoptosis or continue to cause a disease

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22
Q

This phase in the cell cycle is known as the resting phase in which cells are in the quiescent state

A

G0 phase

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23
Q

This phase of the cell cycle that is viewed as either an extended G1 phase, where the cell in neither dividing no preparing to divide or a distinct quiescent stage that occurs outside of the cell cycle

A

G0 phase

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24
Q

This is the phase where cell cycle is dismantled and cyclings and cyclin-dependent kinases disappear

A

G0 phase

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25
Q

This phase of the cell cycle is also known as the growth phase or pre-synthetic phase, where cells resume their biosynthesis activity at a high rate

A

G1 phase

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26
Q

This phase of the cell cycle is where cells grow and size and synthesizes mRNA and proteins in preparation for subsequent steps leading to mitosis

A

G1 phase

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27
Q

This is different from a checkpoint because it does not determine whether cell conditions are ideal to move on to the next phase

A

Restriction (R) point

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28
Q

This assures a high amount of growth factor and a steady rate of protein synthesis, otherwise the cell will move into G0 phase

A

Restriction (R) point

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29
Q

This is the rate limiting rate or the point of no return in the cell cycle. If the cells pass this, they will be allowed to proceed to the next phases.

A

Restriction (R) point

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30
Q

This is the part of the cell cycle where cells are cleared for progression in to the S phase

A

G1/S checkpoint

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31
Q

Reasons why the cell would not move into the S phase

A
  1. Insufficient cell growth
  2. Damaged DNA
  3. Other preparation have not been completed
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32
Q

This checks if the DNA has the correct number and structure and cell is cleared out for progression into the S phase

A

G1/S checkpoint

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33
Q

True or False.

Failure of the G1/S checkpoint to filter proper DNA can lead to genetic defects

A

True

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34
Q

This is also known as the synthesis phase

A

S phase

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35
Q

This is the phase of the cell cycle where DNA is replicated, occurring between G1 phase and G2 phase

A

S phase

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36
Q

In this phase of cell cycle, precise and accurate DNA replication is necessary to prevent genetic abnormalities which often leads to cell death or disease

A

S phase

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37
Q

This is a complex process of embryological development because if involves cell growth, differentiation and relative movement of cell groups

A

Morphogenesis

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38
Q

This is responsible for formation of shape and oraganization of body organs
(example: heart)

A

Morphogenesis

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39
Q

This involves apoptosis which removes unwanted features

A

Morphogenesis

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40
Q

This phase of the cell is also known as the pre-mitotic phase

A

G2 phase

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41
Q

This phase of the cell cycle that follows the successful completion of the S phase

A

G2 phase

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42
Q

This phase of the cell cycle where a period of rapid cell growth and protein synthesis during which the cell readies itself for mitosis

A

G2 phase

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43
Q

This checkpoint assures that there is no damage in the DNA before cells go to cell division/mitosis

A

G2/M checkpoint

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44
Q

This phase of the cell cycle is where cell growth stops and all cellular activity is focuses on producing 2 daughter cells

A

M phase

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45
Q

This phase of the cell cycle is important for the maintenance of chromosomal set

A

M phase

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46
Q

In this phase of the cell cycle, each cell formed receives chromosomes that are alike in composition and equal in number to the chromosaome of the parent cell

A

M phase

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47
Q

These define the M phase of the cell

A

Mitosis and cytokinesis

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48
Q

Phases of mitosis

A

Interphase, prophase, metaphase, anaphase, telophase

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49
Q

This is the process of the division of the cytoplasm

A

Cytokinesis

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50
Q

Group of cells according to their proliferative potential

A
  1. Labile cells
  2. Stable cells
  3. Permanent cells
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51
Q

These group cells continuously divide throughout postnatal life

A

Labile cells

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52
Q

These group cells has a short life span and rapid cell turnover

A

Labile cells

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53
Q

These group of cells is usually noted with hyperplasia

A

Labile cells

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54
Q

Example of labile cells

A

Squamous cells of the skin
Columnar epithelium of the GIT
Transition epithelium of the urinary tract
Hematopoietic cells

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55
Q

These group cells are quiescent cells

A

Stable cells

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56
Q

These group cells divide very infrequently under normal conditions but when are lost, their stem cells are easily
stimulated to differentiate or divide

A

Stable cells

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57
Q

Example of stable cells

A

Hepatocytes (partial hepatectomy)
Parenchymal cells of the kidneys and pancreas
Mesenchymal cells such as fibroblasts and smooth muscles

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58
Q

These group cells are non-dividing cells

A

Permanent cells

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59
Q

Examples of permanent cells

A

Neurons and myocardial cells

60
Q

These growth factors are protein mediators of inflammation and immune response

A

Cytokines

61
Q

These growth factors have growth-promoting activitied for a variety of cells

A

Cytokines

62
Q

Examples of cytokines

A

IL
IFN
TNF

63
Q

True or False.

Cytokines also act as inhibitory siganals

A

True

64
Q

This is also known as receptor-mediated signal transduction

A

Signalling mechanism

65
Q

This occurs upon binding of ligands to specific receptors

A

Signalling mechanisms

66
Q

True or False.

In signalling mechanisms, receptor activation leads to expression of specific genes and illicit growth.

A

True

67
Q

General modes of signalling according to the source of ligand and location of its receptors

A
  1. Autocrine
  2. Paracrine
  3. Endocrine
68
Q

In this mode of signalling, cells respond to the signallingmolecules they themselve secrete, hence creating a loop

A

Autocrine

69
Q

In this mode of signalling, cells stimulate self-growth without distant or adjacent receptor

A

Autocrine

70
Q

Examples of autocrine mode

A

Liver regeneration
Antigen-stimulated lymphocyte proliferation
Tumor growth
Keratinocytes during skin injury

71
Q

In this mode of signalling, one cell produces the ligand which acts on the adjacent target cells that express the appropriate receptor

A

Paracrine

72
Q

In this mode of signalling, the adjacent cell is of different type from the cell expressing the ligand

A

Paracrine

73
Q

Example of paracrine mode

A

Wound repair and embryological development

74
Q

In this mode of signalling, a gland produces hormones targeting distant cells, usually carried out by the blood

A

Endocrine

75
Q

Examples of endocrine mode

A

Posterior pituitary gland secretes oxytocin which goes to the breast (lactation) and uterus (contraction during parturition)

76
Q

Reversible changes in the size, number, phenotype, metabolic activity or functions of the cells in response to changes in their environment

A

Cellular adaptations

77
Q

Different types of cellular adaptations

A

Hypertophy
Hyperplasia
Atrophy
Metaplasia

78
Q

This is a type of cellular adaptation where there is increase in the size of the cells with resultant increase of the size of the organ

A

Hypertrophy

79
Q

Most common stimulus for hypertrophy

A

Increase workload

80
Q

This is a type of cellular adaptation where subcellular organelles develop hypertrophy

A

Selective hypertrophy

81
Q

Example of selective hypertrophy

A

Hypertrophy of smooth endoplasmic reticulum in the hepatocytes in patients treated with barbituate (increase CYP450 to detoxify drugs)

82
Q

Mechanism of hypertrophy

A

Synthesis of more structural components of the cells and cellular proteins

83
Q

Analogy.
Homeostasis: ___________
Adaptation: __________

A

Homeostasis: steady state
Adaptation: altered steady state

84
Q

Example of hypertrophy

A

Left Ventricular Hypertrophy - increase in organ size and histologically seen as box-card shaped nuclei and thicker cardiac muscle fiber

85
Q

Two types of hypertrophy

A

Physiologic hypertrophy

Pathologic hypertrophy

86
Q

This type of hypertrophy is inflence by hormones and growth factors

A

Physiologic hypertrophy

87
Q

Example of physiologic hypertrophy

A

Skeletal muscles of body builders

Smooth muscle cells of the uterus during pregnancy

88
Q

This type of hypertrophy is influenced by existing medical condition/disease or a chronic hemodynamic overload

A

Pathologic hypertrophy

89
Q

Example of pathologic hypertrophy

A

Myocardial hypertrophy secondary to hypertension and defective heart valves (mitral stenosis)

90
Q

This is a type of cellular adaptation where there is increase in the number of cells in an organ or tissue

A

Hyperplasia

91
Q

This is a type of cellular adaptation results in increased mass of the organ or tissue

A

Hyperplasia

92
Q

This is a type of cellular adaptation occurs in cells capable of dividine

A

Hyperplasia

93
Q

This is a type of cellular adaptation may occur with hypertrophy

A

Hyperplasia

94
Q

This is a type of cellular adaptation is characterized by a shaggy endometrium and increase in number of cork-screw shaped glands during pregnancy

A

Hyperplasia

95
Q

True or False.

Hyperplasia is not cancer.

A

True

96
Q

Mechanism of hyperplasia

A

Result of the growth factor-driven proliferation of mature cells, and in some cases, by increase output of new cells from the tissue stem cells

97
Q

Two types of hyperplasia

A

Physiologic hyperplasia

Pathologic hyperplasia

98
Q

Two types of physiologic hyperplasia

A

Hormonal hyperplasia

Compensatory hyperplasia

99
Q

An example of this type of physiologic hyperplasia is increase in number of glands during puberty and pregnancy.

A

Hormonal hyperplasia

100
Q

An example of this type of physiologic hyperplasia is compensatory hyperplasia is partial hepatectomy.

A

Compensatory hyperplasia

101
Q

This type of hyperplasia is caused by excess of hormones or growth factors acting on target cells

A

Pathologic hyperplasia

102
Q

Mechanism of pathologic hyperplasia in endometrial hyperplasia

A

Secondary to ovarian tumors

Increase in glandural stroma

103
Q

Mechanism of pathologic hyperplasia in benign prostatic arrangement

A

Coalesced arrangement

Increase in glandular stroma

104
Q

Mechanism of pathologic hyperplasia in viral infection of the skin

A

Verruca

Thickened stratum corneum

105
Q

This type of cellular adaptation is characterized by reduction in cell size of an organ or tissue resulting from a decrease in cell size, mass and number

A

Atrophy

106
Q

Two types of atrophy

A

Physiologic atrophy

Pathologic atrophy

107
Q

In atrophy, degradation of cellular proteins occurs mainly through _____________.

A

Ubiquitin-Proteasome Pathway

108
Q

Mechanism of Ubiquitin-Proteasome pathway

A

Conjugation with a 26s proteasome which is male up of a catalytic 20s core and 19s regulatory protein)

109
Q

True or False.

Atrophy is accompanied by autophagy where autophagic vacuoles are formed.

A

True

110
Q

Analogy: Autophagic vacuoles.
Fuse with lysosomes: ________________
Not degraded: _________________

A

Fuse with lysosomes: Lysosomal degradation

Not degraded: Residual bodies

111
Q

Mechanism of atrophy

A

Due to decrease protein synthesis and increase protein degradation in cells

112
Q

Two types of atrophy

A
  1. Physiologic atrophy

2. Pathologic atrophy

113
Q

This is the type of atrophy where tissues/structures present in embryo or childhood may undergo atrophy as growth and development progess (thymus)

A

Physiologic hypertrophy

114
Q

This is the type of atrophy that occur as a result of disease of loss of trophic support

A

Pathologic atrophy

115
Q

Causes of pathologic hypertrophy

A 
Decreased workload (atrophy of disuse)
Denervation atrophy
Diminished blood supple
Inadequate nutrition
Loss of endocrine stimulation
Pressure
116
Q

This is the type of cellular adaptation is characterized by a differentiated cell type that is replaced by another cell type as a response to altered environment state (chronic cellular injury and repair)

A

Metaplasia

117
Q

This is the type of cellular adaptation is often associated with the increased rick of malignancy

A

Metaplasia

118
Q

Most common type epithelial metaplasia

A

Squamous metaplasia (columnar to squamous cells)

119
Q

Most common organ affected by squamoous metaplasia

A

Cervix

120
Q

Mechanisms of metaplasia

A
  1. Reprogramming of stem cells existing in normal tissues or of undifferentiated mesenchymal cells present in connective tissues
  2. Differentiation is brought about by the signals generated by cytokine, GF and ECM components in the cells’ environment
121
Q

This is an abnormal organization of cells characterized by increase cell proliferation with atypical morphology

A

Dysplasia

122
Q

True or False.

Dysplasia may be reversible in early stages.

A

True

123
Q

True or False.

Dysplastic lesions are often pre-neoplastic/pre-malignant

A

True

124
Q

During this abnormal cellular adaptation, there is less polarity, loss of original layers, and higher nuclei to cytoplasm ratio.

A

Dysplasia

125
Q

Cigarette smoking
Original tissue: ____________
Metaplastic tissue: _____________

A

Original tissue: Ciliated columnar epithelium of bronchial tree
Metaplastic tissue: Squamous epithelium

126
Q

Trauma of the bladder calculus
Original tissue: ____________
Metaplastic tissue: _____________

A

Original tissue: Transitional epithelium of bladder

Metaplastic tissue: Squamous epithelium

127
Q

Trauma of calculus
Original tissue: ____________
Metaplastic tissue: _____________

A

Original tissue: Columnar epithelium in gland ducts

Metaplastic tissue: Squamous epithelium

128
Q

Chronic trauma
Original tissue: ____________
Metaplastic tissue: _____________

A

Original tissue: Fibrocollagenous tissue

Metaplastic tissue: Bone (osseous) tissue

129
Q

Gastric acid
Original tissue: ____________
Metaplastic tissue: _____________

A

Original tissue: Esophageal squamous epithelium

Metaplastic tissue: Columnar epithelium

130
Q

Vitamin A deficiency
Original tissue: ____________
Metaplastic tissue: _____________

A

Original tissue: Columnar glandular epithelium

Metaplastic tissue: Squamous epithelium

131
Q

Example results of defects in cell cycle

A 
Turner syndrome (Barr Boddies is absent, otherwise know as 45, X0)
Edward’s syndrome (Trisomy 18)
Patau Syndrome (Trisomy 13)
132
Q

True or False.

DNA synthesis is already initiated at the R point.

A

True

133
Q

True or False.

G2 phase ends with the onset of prophase of the M phase.

A

True

134
Q

True or False.

Stable cells start to differentiate and divide in the G1 phase.

A

True

135
Q

There are polypeptides which are components necessary for cell proliferation.

A

Growth factors

136
Q

True or False.

Growth factors may have a single or multiple cell targets.

A

True

137
Q

True or False.
Growth factors may promote numerous effects such as cell survival, locomotion, contractility, differentiation and
angiogenesis.

A

True

138
Q

True or False.
Growth factors are named after their respective
targets.

A

True

139
Q

True or False.
Should growth factors be expressed in higher than
normal amounts, it may induce the development of tumors as growth will no longer adhere to the physiologic standard.

A

True

140
Q

Physiologic example of autocrine mode

A

Liver regeneration and antigen-stimulated lymphocyte proliferation

141
Q

Pathologic example of autocrine mode

A

Tumor growth (poorly regulated autocrine regulation induces too much cellular growth and proliferation which may cause malignancies especially if restriction points and checkpoints have been bypassed by the cell)

142
Q

Range of autocrine mode

A

Self

143
Q

True or False.

Paracrine mode does not rely on blood flow since distance traversed in not too far.

A

True

144
Q

Range of paracrine mode

A

Adjacent cells with appropriate receptors

145
Q

True or False.

The endocrine gland relies on the blood flow to deliver the hormone to distant organs/ targets

A

True

146
Q

True or False.
Adaptation occurs if a normal cell in under constant, mild to transient stress. However, when stimulus becomes severe or progressive, irreversible injury occurs.

A

True

Pathology (5 decks)

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