2: Beliefs in Society: Theories on religion Flashcards
Functionalist function: Distinction + Evaluation
Durkheim argues the main feature of religion is the distinction it makes between the sacred and profane. By collectively worshiping society’s sacred symbols, its members are worshiping the society itself and this is crucial in maintaining collective conscience as through these rituals value consensus and social solidarity is reaffirmed thus binding together society’s members.
Method of research: Durkheim’s analysis was based on studies of the religion of Australian Aborigines, which he called totemism. Each clan worshipped its totem which was regarded as sacred. By worshiping this totem, the clan was actually worshiping its society as the totem was the representation of the clan/society.
Criticism: Durkheim’s theory is based on flawed evidence as he misunderstood the Aboriginal tribes and their use of totems. He also fails to explain the origins of religion.
Functionalist function: meaning + Evaluation
Parsons argues the function of religion is to create meaning for members of a society and provide the core values of a culture thus promoting social solidarity. Religion provides core values by sacralising them. For example, the Ten Commandments have become a part of the general values of our society, e.g. ‘Thou shall not kill’.
Criticism: Only a minority attend church/places of worship so it is difficult to see how religion can be functioning to socialise the majority of society’s members into shared norms and values.
Functionalist function: social solidarity + Evaluation
Malinowski argues the function of religion is to promote social solidarity, but this is in response to the psychological needs of individuals in specific situations of emotional stress. Two types of events are a threat to social solidarity: Life crises (such as birth, puberty, marriage and death) and important activities that are uncertain and uncontrollable (such as going into battle). In these events, religion provides a sense of control, diminishes anxiety and unifies the group.
Method of research: Malinowski’s analysis was based on an ethnographic study where he immersed himself fully in the life of the tribe in the Pacific ocean. He found that when the tribe fished in the safe lagoon, they had no rituals beforehand as fishing in the lagoon was safe and predictable; however, before they would go fishing in the ocean they held religious ceremonies because fishing in the ocean was dangerous, uncontrollable and uncertain and these ceremonies acted to give the fishermen
Criticism: Ignores that religion also often has dysfunctional consequences rather than binding people together; many of the world’s conflicts have been caused by religion e.g The conflict between Catholics and Protestants.
Functionalist function: alternative of unifying society
Bellah argues there is also a functional alternative to religion that unifies a society – non-religious practices which perform similar functions to religion, e.g. promoting social solidarity. Civil religion does not always have to include the belief in a supernatural power (God). For example in a multi-faith society like America, Americanism acts as a civil religion as it generates widespread loyalty to the nation through ceremonies such as the pledge of allegiance to the flag and singing the national anthem. In Nazi Germany, the political ideology of Nazism became civil religion uniting the German nation through ceremonies such as Nazi rallies and Hitler’s speeches. Bellah’s theory is therefore useful for explaining how civil religion can be a unifying force in a society which is characterised by religious and cultural pluralism.
Marxism: legitimates ruling class power + Evaluation
Religion distorts reality by encouraging the belief that people’s lives are determined by a supernatural power so that there is little they can do to change or improve their situation, i.e. they are poor because God made them such and he had his reasons. Christians and Muslims believe in predetermination – (God decides every aspect of a person’s life before they were born). This maintains false class consciousness and prevents revolution. Lenin referred to religion as spiritual gin – an intoxication given to the working class by the ruling class to confuse them and keep them in their place.
Criticism: Marxist theory ignores secularisation - how can the ruling class impose its ideology on the masses via religion if the masses don’t attend church/places of worship?
Marxism: ideological control + Evaluation
Religion legitimates the power and privilege of the ruling class by making their position divinely ordained (God given), e.g. in feudal England the King was seen as God’s representative on Earth and so had to be obeyed. Therefore, disobedience to the monarch isn’t just illegal, it is a sin. Similarly, in Hinduism, the caste system justifies the power of the higher castes.
Criticism: Religion does not always legitimate power; it can sometimes provide an impetus for change, e.g. Christian religious leaders were the driving force behind the Civil Rights Movement (Rev. M. L. King).
Marxism: exploited working class consoled + Evaluation
According to Marx, the exploitation in the workplace causes the working class to feel alienated as they have no control over their work and are dehumanised as they can not express themselves as creative beings. They turn to religion for consolation which is the ‘the opium of the people’ – a drug; lessening the pain of oppression, exploitation and alienation by promising rewards in the afterlife. This creates the illusion of happiness and distracts the working class from the true cause of their suffering - Capitalism. For example, abrahamic religions promise heavenly rewards, while Hinduism and Buddhism offer the possibility of a better life in reincarnation. Religion is therefore a product of alienation, it arises out of suffering and consoles the poor for their suffering, but it doesn’t offer any real solutions to their problem. Criticism: Marx claimed that in a communist society there would be no need for religion (as the working class would no longer need to be indoctrinated into accepting an unfair system). However, in many communist societies people continued to be religious.
Feminist views + Evaluation
Feminists see monotheistic religions as patriarchal; they help to subordinate, exploit and oppress women.
Holm argues that religion is patriarchal in the following ways: Organisation as religions are led by men, Beliefs and doctrines (teachings) as women are often portrayed as inferior and Practices as women’s behaviour is restricted by many religions.
Criticism: Protestant Church now allows female priests and bishops.
Radical Feminist views + Evaluation
Radical Feminists see religion as a patriarchal institution: existing for the benefit of men.
De Beauvoir argues that religion is used by men to control women by compensating women for their low status. For example, the promises of rewards in the afterlife.
Daly argues that religion is infused with patriarchal ideology. For example, it provides specific rules for women to follow, e.g. how to dress, while for men there are no such rules.
Criticisms: Radical Feminist views on religion are ethnocentric, e.g. Muslim women claim that wearing the hijab is liberating for them as it liberates them from being objectified by men.
Religious Feminist views
El Sadaawi argues that religion itself is not patriarchal and it is not the direct cause of women’s oppression. It is the society that is patriarchal and men use religion to justify their dominant position in society by reshaping religion so it can be used to oppress women. For example, the Bible was written at a time of extreme patriarchy and it was written by men and these men used the scriptures to justify and reinforce their dominant position in society.
Gilliat-Ray argues young British Muslim women wear the hijab in order to gain their parents’ approval for going to university so for them the hijab is liberating as it allows them to enter the public spheres without being seen as immodest in their community.
