2-3: Behaviourist Psychology

Question 1

What does the behaviourist perspective focus on?

Answer 1

Focuses on observable behaviour as a means to studying the human psyche.

Question 2

What is the primary tenet of behaviourism?

Answer 2

Psychology should concern itself with the observable behaviour of people and animals, not with unobservable events that take place in their minds.

Question 3

Who were the main influences on behaviourism?

Answer 3

• Ivan Pavlov
• Edward Lee Thorndike
• John B. Watson
• B.F. Skinner

Question 4

Define

Classical Conditioning

Answer 4

As we learn, we alter the way we perceive our environment, the way we interpret the incoming stimuli, and therefore the way we interact, or behave.

The smell of a cologne, the sound of a certain song, or the occurrence of a specific day of the year can trigger distinct memories, emotions, and associations.

When we make these types of associations, we are experiencing classical conditioning.

Question 5

What was Ivan Pavlov’s main contribution to behaviourism?

Answer 5

Pavlov founded classical conditioning.

Question 6

How did Pavlov discover classical conditioning?

Answer 6

Pavlov actually discovered classical conditioning accidentally while doing research on the digestive patterns in dogs.

Question 7

Define

Operant Conditioning

Answer 7

A method of learning that uses rewards and punishment to modify behavior.

Question 8

Which is the most powerful type of operant conditioning?

Answer 8

Positive reinforcement

Question 9

What are the types of operant conditioning?

Answer 9

Reinforcement (increase behaviour), and punishment (decrease behaviour)

Question 10

Define

Positive reinforcement

Answer 10

Positive reinforcement involves adding a pleasant or rewarding stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring again in the future. When a behavior is followed by a positive reinforcer, the individual is more likely to repeat that behavior. For example, giving a child a piece of candy (pleasant stimulus) for completing their homework (desired behavior) is an example of positive reinforcement.

Question 11

Define

Negative reinforcement

Answer 11

Negative reinforcement involves the removal or avoidance of an aversive or unpleasant stimulus to increase the likelihood of a behavior occurring again. When a behavior leads to the removal of something undesirable, the individual is more likely to engage in that behavior in the future. For instance, a person might wear a seatbelt (behavior) to stop the annoying sound of a car’s seatbelt reminder (aversive stimulus).

Question 12

Define

Positive punishment

Answer 12

Positive punishment involves adding an aversive or unpleasant stimulus following a behavior to decrease the likelihood of that behavior occurring in the future. An example is scolding a child (aversive stimulus) for misbehaving (undesired behavior).

Question 13

Define

Negative punishment

Answer 13

Negative punishment involves removing a pleasant or desired stimulus following a behavior to decrease the likelihood of that behavior happening again. For instance, taking away a teenager’s phone (desired stimulus) as a consequence for breaking curfew (undesired behavior) is an example of negative punishment.

Question 14

Define

Escape

In relation to negative reinforcement

Answer 14

Escape is a type of negative reinforcement that occurs when an individual engages in a behavior to terminate or escape from an ongoing aversive stimulus. In other words, the person is trying to “get away from” or “end” something unpleasant. The behavior serves as a means of immediately reducing or eliminating the aversive stimulus. An example of escape behavior is covering your ears (behavior) to escape from a loud and irritating noise (aversive stimulus).

Question 15

Define

Active avoidance

In relation to negative reinforcement

Answer 15

Active avoidance is a type of negative reinforcement that involves the individual engaging in a behavior to prevent or avoid the onset of an aversive stimulus altogether. Unlike escape, where the aversive stimulus is already present, active avoidance aims to ensure that the aversive stimulus does not occur in the first place. This behavior is proactive and is reinforced by the absence of the aversive stimulus. For instance, taking an umbrella (behavior) with you on a cloudy day to avoid getting wet from the rain (aversive stimulus) is an example of active avoidance.

Question 16

List the steps in

Thorndike’s Theory of Learning

Answer 16

1. Learning is incremental.
2. Learning occurs automatically.
3. All animals learn the same way.
4. Law of effect
5. Law of use
6. Law of disuse
7. Law of recency
8. Multiple response
9. Set or attitude
10. Prepotency of elements
11. Response by analogy
12. Identical elements theory of transfer
13. Associative shifting
14. Law of readiness
15. Identifiability
16. Availability

Question 17

Define

Law of effect

Answer 17

If an association is followed by satisfaction, it will be strengthened, and if it is followed by annoyance, it will be weakened.

Part of Thorndike’s Theory of Learning

Example: Imagine a student who studies diligently for an exam and achieves a high score as a result. The satisfaction of doing well on the test serves as a pleasurable consequence, reinforcing the student’s study habits. As a result, the student is more likely to continue studying diligently for future exams, demonstrating the law of effect in learning and behavior.

Question 18

Define

Law of use

Answer 18

The more often an association is used, the stronger it becomes.

Part of Thorndike’s Theory of Learning

Example: Consider a musician who regularly practices playing a musical instrument. The more they practice and use their skills, the more proficient and skilled they become in playing the instrument. Their ability to perform complex pieces improves over time because of the consistent use of their musical skills, demonstrating the law of use in skill development.

Question 19

Define

Law of disuse

Answer 19

The longer an association is unused, the weaker it becomes.

Part of Thorndike’s Theory of Learning

Example: Imagine someone who used to be fluent in a foreign language but hasn’t practiced or spoken it for many years. Over time, their ability to recall and use the language deteriorates because of disuse. When they finally try to converse in that language again, they find it challenging to remember vocabulary and grammar rules, illustrating the law of disuse in language retention

Question 20

Define

Law of recency

Answer 20

The most recent response is most likely to reoccur.

Part of Thorndike’s Theory of Learning

Example: In a language class, a student learns several new vocabulary words during today’s lesson. If the teacher asks the student to recall a word from the lesson, the student is more likely to remember and correctly state the word that was most recently introduced during that day’s class, demonstrating the law of recency in memory recall.

Question 21

Define

Multiple response

Answer 21

An animal will try multiple responses (trial and error) if the first response does not lead to a specific state of affairs.

Part of Thorndike’s Theory of Learning

Example: Imagine a person trying to open a complex lock for the first time. Initially, they may attempt to turn the lock in one direction. If this doesn’t work, they might try turning it in the opposite direction, then jiggling it, and so on. These multiple responses represent their trial-and-error approach to solving the problem until they find the correct combination to open the lock.

Question 22

Define

Set or attitude

Answer 22

Animals are predisposed to act in a specific way.

Part of Thorndike’s Theory of Learning

Example: Imagine a student who has always enjoyed science classes and has a positive attitude toward learning new scientific concepts. When presented with a challenging science experiment in the laboratory, this positive attitude serves as a set or predisposition that motivates the student to approach the experiment with enthusiasm and a willingness to learn, contributing to their success in the task.

Question 23

Define

Prepotency of elements

Answer 23

A subect can filter out irrelevant aspects of a problem and focus on and respond to significant elements of a problem.

Part of Thorndike’s Theory of Learning

Example: When assembling a puzzle, you may prioritize finding and connecting the edge pieces first because they are the most distinctive and prepotent elements due to their straight edges and corners. This strategy helps you establish the puzzle’s framework before focusing on the less distinctive interior pieces.

Question 24

Define

Response by analogy

Answer 24

Responses from a related or similar context may be used in a new context.

Part of Thorndike’s Theory of Learning

Example: Suppose you are an experienced chess player and have a well-developed strategy for a particular opening sequence in chess. When you encounter a similar arrangement of pieces in a different chess game, you apply the same strategy because it worked well for you before. This is an example of responding by analogy, where you transfer your previous chess strategy to a new, but analogous, situation.

Question 25

Define

Identical elements theory of transfer

Answer 25

The more similar the situations are, the greater the amount of information that will transfer.

Similarly, if the situations have nothing in common, information learned in one situation will not be of any value in the other situation.

Part of Thorndike’s Theory of Learning

Example: If a person has learned how to swim in a swimming pool with specific conditions (e.g., depth, water temperature, lighting), the Identical Elements Theory predicts that they may find it easier to transfer their swimming skills to a similar swimming pool with the same conditions, rather than to a completely different environment like a turbulent river where the elements are vastly dissimilar.

Question 26

Define

Associative shifting

Answer 26

It is possible to shift any response from occurring with one stimulus to occurring with another stimulus.

Part of Thorndike’s Theory of Learning

Example: Imagine a dog that has learned to sit (response) when it hears the command “sit” (stimulus). With associative shifting, the dog can be trained to sit in response to a new command like “stay,” demonstrating the transfer of the learned behavior from one stimulus to another.

Question 27

Define

Law of readiness

Answer 27

A quality in responses and connections that results in readiness to act. Behaviour and learning are influenced by the readiness or unreadiness of responses, as well as by their strength.

Part of Thorndike’s Theory of Learning

Example: Imagine a student who is eager and well-prepared for a mathematics exam. They have thoroughly studied the material and are confident in their abilities. When presented with a complex math problem, they approach it with enthusiasm and readily apply their knowledge to solve it, demonstrating the law of readiness in action. In contrast, if the same student were unprepared and lacked confidence, they might struggle or avoid attempting the problem altogether. The law of readiness highlights how an individual’s state of readiness or unreadiness can impact their behavior and learning outcomes.

Question 28

Define

Identifiability

Answer 28

Identification or placement of a situation is a first response to the nervous system, which can recognize it.

Then, connections may be made to one another or to another response, and these connections depend on the original identification.

Therefore, a large amount of learning is made up of changes in the identifiability of situations.

Part of Thorndike’s Theory of Learning

Example: Identifiability, in the context of learning to ride a bicycle, refers to the process of recognizing and becoming more aware of the various components and sensations involved in cycling, which improves with practice and allows the individual to ride more effectively and respond to different situations.

Question 29

Define

Availability

Answer 29

The ease of getting a specific response.

Part of Thorndike’s Theory of Learning.

Example: It would be easier for a person to learn to touch their nose with closed eyes than it would be to draw a line five inches long with closed eyes.

Question 30

Describe

Edward L. Thorndike’s Puzzle Box Experiments

Answer 30

Thorndike found that once a cat accidentally stepped on the switch, it would then press the switch faster in each succeeding trial inside the puzzle box.
* He put the cat in the puzzle box, and he watched how they escaped. They could if they pulled on a bar or a lever, which caused the door to open.
* He measured how long it took them to perform this. He gave them a reward when they did this.
* Once they figured out they would get food for doing it, they would perform the action quickly. It became a learned response.
* This is not a natural behaviour, so it is an involuntary response.

By observing and recording how long it took a variety of animals to escape through several trials, Thorndike was able to graph the learning curve (graphed as an S-shape).

He observed that most animals had difficulty escaping at first, then began to escape faster with each successive puzzle box trial, and eventually levelled off in their escape times.

Question 31

Define

Learned response

Answer 31

Refers to a behavior or reaction that an individual has acquired or developed through the process of learning. This type of response is not innate or instinctual but is instead the result of experiences, exposure to specific stimuli, or the consequences of past actions.

Question 32

Define

Involuntary response

Answer 32

Refers to a physiological or behavioral reaction that occurs automatically and without conscious control in response to a specific stimulus. These responses are typically regulated by the autonomic nervous system and are not subject to conscious intention or voluntary control. Involuntary responses are often essential for the body’s survival and functioning.

Common examples of involuntary responses include:

Reflexes: Reflexes are rapid, automatic responses to a stimulus that help protect the body from harm. For example, the knee-jerk reflex occurs when a doctor taps the knee with a mallet, causing the lower leg to jerk forward involuntarily.

Autonomic Nervous System Functions: The autonomic nervous system controls various involuntary functions of the body, such as heart rate, digestion, respiratory rate, and pupil dilation. These processes occur automatically and are not consciously directed.

Emotional Responses: Some emotional reactions, like the “fight or flight” response to a perceived threat, involve involuntary physiological changes such as increased heart rate, sweating, and heightened alertness.

Sensory Reactions: Certain sensory reactions, such as blinking in response to a sudden bright light or tearing up when chopping onions, are involuntary and protect or assist sensory organs.

Question 33

Who was John B. Watson?

Answer 33

A behaviourist psychologist.

Through his behaviourist approach, Watson conducted research on animal behaviour, child rearing, and advertising while gaining notoriety for the controversial “Little Albert” experiment.

Question 34

Who is responsible for the Little Albert experiment, and what was it?

Answer 34

John B. Watson and Rayner were responsible for the Little Albert experiment.

This experiment set out to show how the recently discovered principles of classical conditioning could be applied to condition fear of a white rat into Little Albert, an 11-month-old boy.

1. Watson and Rayner (1920) first presented to the boy a white rat and observed that the boy was not afraid.
2. Next, they presented him with a white rat and then clanged an iron rod. Little Albert responded by crying. This second presentation was repeated several times.
3. Finally, Watson and Rayner presented the white rat by itself and the boy showed fear.

Later, in an attempt to see if the fear transferred to other objects, Watson presented Little Albert with a rabbit, a dog, and fur coat. He cried at the sight of all of them.

Question 35

Who was Burrhus Frederic Skinner

More commonly refferred to as B.F. Skinner

Answer 35

He founded radical behavoiurism and is responsible for the Skinner Box experiment.

Radical behaviourism is the philosophy of the science of behaviour.

Question 36

Define

Radical behaviourism

Answer 36

The philosophy of the science of behaviour.

The applied behaviourism does not accept private events such as thinking, perceptions, and unobservable emotions in a causal account of an organism’s behaviour.

Founded by B.F. Skinner

Question 37

Describe

Skinner Box experiment

Also mention who is responsible for it.

Answer 37

Skinner invented a chamber used to measure responses of organisms (most often rats and pigeons) and their orderly interactions with the environment.

The box had a lever and a food tray, and a hungry rat inside the box could get food delivered to the tray by pressing a lever.

1. Skinner observed that when a rat was first put into the box, it would wander around, sniffing and exploring.
2. It would usually press the bar by accident, at which point a food pellet would drop into the tray.
3. After that happened, the rate of bar pressing would increase dramatically and remain high until the rat was no longer hungry.

Negative reinforcement was also exemplified by Skinner placing rats into an electrified chamber that delivered unpleasant shocks.

Levers to cut the power were placed inside these boxes.

After accidentally pressing the lever in a frantic bid to escape, quickly learned the effects of the lever and consequently used this knowledge to stop the currents both during and prior to electrical shock.

Question 38

Define

Gamification

Answer 38

The process of taking an ordinary activity (like jogging or car sharing) and adding game mechanisms to it, including prompts, rewards, leader-boards, and competition between different players.

Typically, gamification is web-based, usually with a mobile app or as a micro-site.

E.g. organizations that wanted employees to exercise regularly have installed gyms in their offices and created a custom application that rewards employees for “checking in” to the gyms.

Question 39

Who were the main influences of behaviourist psychology?

Answer 39

• Ivan Pavlov (1849-1936)
• Edward Lee Thorndike (1874-1949)
• John B. Watson (1878-1958)
• B.F. Skinner (1904-1990).