1.Structural theories (unit1) Flashcards
Give a functionalism plan paragraph 1
Parsons- How individuals are integrated into society by social order to maintain a value consensus.
SL: primary and secondary socialisation
Ev: Althusser, you are socialised to perform the needs of capitalism through ruling class ideology such as submission to authority which leads to a false class conscience.
or
Give a functionalism plan paragraph 2
Parsons - society works through an organic analogy - working perfect like an organism to maintain society and keeping it alive.
SL + example: Covid, NHS healthcare impacted the institutions.
Ev: Parsons theory is evidently wrong . Althusser would say that the institutions control people via the ISA and RSA. eg, media.
Give a functionalism plan paragraph 3
Merton believes that the institutions have a latent function like how a school is intended to teach students,
Give a Marxism plan paragraph 1
(Marx) Economy is built up upon the super structure and economic base. Which helps spread RC ideology which creates a false class consciousness. SL: Althusser.
Eventually society will develop a class consciousness. As a result of this, polarisation will take place and there will be a revolution.
Ev: social action theorists would argue that Marx is economically deterministic
Give a Marxism plan paragraph 2
(Althusser) Neo Marxist People do not have free will as we are controlled by the ISA which the RSA helps to sustain. SL: a unit of consumption through media, we consume by what the media shows us. - keeping up with the Jones.
Ev: Parsons organic analogy believes that society and institutions work perfectly.
Give a Marxism plan paragraph 3
Antonio Gramsci, a Marxist intellectual, is best known for his theory of cultural hegemony. He argued that the ruling capitalist class uses cultural institutions and ideology to maintain power in capitalist societies, rather than relying solely on violence or economic force. Gramsci believed that the working-class intelligentsia must generate a working-class ideology to counter the worldview of the ruling class. (counter hegemony) - this is shown through Paul Willis and his study of the lads - they rejected the school system and developed a dual class consciousness to revolt.
Parsons integration of individuals:
Society is a social system based on VALUE CONSENSUS (shared values).
The need for social order & harmony is a big one.
To get that into our heads, we need to be (1) SOCIALISED into that
culture’s particular norms and values.
This can also be done through (2) SOCIAL CONTROL – positive sanctions
reward conformity, while negative ones punish deviance. E.g. work hard = good
job. Deviate = prison…
Parsons view on society as a system (organic analogy + GAIL model)
The Functionalist idea is that if all the systems (organs) in society are Functioning in harmony it will remain healthy.
-But if one or other of these vital institutions starts to malfunction, then society becomes dysfunctional.
Social change and evolution
-Societies evolve – this is only normal – a change in one part will result in changes
elsewhere, but the system will remain balanced and stable
Parsons explains this in terms of structural differentiation (as societies evolve and
new needs arise for society and individuals, institutions become more specialized
and functions they once performed are lost to new functions).
-Parsons sees gradual change occurring through moving equilibrium – as a change
occurs in one part of the system, it produces compensatory changes in other parts
Durkheim and social factions
A system of ‘external social facts’ shapes people’s behaviour. Social facts are things such as our institutions and norms and values which exist external to the individual but constrain the individual (therefore we are puppets)
AO2: Durkheim’s study on suicide.
Merton’s internal critique of functionalism
Merton (a functionalist) criticizes Parsons’ concept of universal functionalism – the
idea that everything in society performs a positive function.
He argues that in complex modern societies, this is doubtful…
He argues that many institutions are actually DYSFUNCTIONAL
E.g. various religions + faiths – this may divide rather than unite society
= Protestants and Catholics in Northern Ireland
- Merton’s manifest and latent functions
Merton suggested there were manifest functions of an institution, but also latent
functions alongside them
Manifest functions – the positive functions ‘intended and recognised by participants in
the system’. These are important because they help individuals and groups to achieve
their goals. They tend to be consciously and deliberately intended to produce beneficial outcomes, and thus can be used as a way of justifying the continual existence of an institution.
Latent functions – are neither ‘intended nor recognised’. They can be functional or
dysfunctional for society! Latent functions are important because they can often have
more influence on behaviour than manifest functions, as people are often unaware,
and thus less likely to be able to stop or control them.
Evaluation of functionalism
Parsons overemphasizes harmony and consensus and ignores/downplays the extent of conflict and the unequal distribution of power in society – with which Marxist and
feminist conflict theorists are concerned about.
Overemphasis of the positive functions, but some functions may be dysfunctional (e.g. to women) …see Merton box below
Social action theorists see Parsons as too deterministic – he sees individuals as simple
passive products of the social system that are socialised into conformity and controlling their behaviour. He doesn’t allow for individual choice, and pays no regard to the action, interpretations and meanings individuals give to situations, as the social actions theorists do.
Functionalism is a metanarrative or grand theory that tries to explain EVERYTHING from a SINGLE perspective. Postmodernists say that such metanarratives can no longer explain contemporary societies, where social life is chaotic and value diverse
Is there really a value consensus? Links to point above. Surely in a dog-eat-dog society
there is actually more conflict and resentment rather than consensus and harmony.
Key features of traditional Marxism
1) Base and superstructure
2) Private ownership and social classes
3) Exploitation
4) Capitalists and workers
5) Class conflict
6) The Ruling Class
7) Dominant ideology
8) Revolution and communism
9) Evaluation of Marxism
Evaluation of traditional Marxism
It is deterministic. It sees individuals as simply passive products of the system, which socializes them into conformity. It doesn’t take into account individual choice, as social action theorists do + postmodernists do.
Marx has been accused of being economically deterministic, as it doesn’t allow for the possibility that the ideas and institutions may actually influence behaviour themselves and causes social change independently of the economy.
It is a metanarrative that tries to explain everything from a single perspective. Postmodernists emphasize such metanarratives can longer explain contemporary societies, where social life is chaotic, values diverse and social structures fragmented.
It over-emphasizes the extent of conflict in society. Functionalists would argue society is primarily stable, and there must be shared values for life to be possible.
What does Gramsci say:
hegemony - the means by which the ruling class maintains its dominance and control over the subject class.
-He saw ideology and people’s ideas having relative autonomy from the economic base.
-Gramsci argues that R/C hegemony never completely blinds the proletariat to their reality of the situation. As a result, Gramsci argues that members of the subject class have a dual consciousness = seeing two views of the world side by side.
Downfall of capitalism:
-Gramsci argues this can happen from a rejection of ruling class hegemony + its replacement by a set of beliefs that provide a true picture of society
He argues a group of “elites of intellectuals” will lead the way.
They will present a set of beliefs in direct opposition to R/C hegemony = he calls this
counter-hegemony.
Evaluation of Gramsci:
-Traditional Marxists have criticised Gramsci’s separation of hegemony from the economy = they argue that changes in society are ultimately based on economic changes.
-Gramsci over-emphasizes the role of ideas, and under-emphasizes the role of material factors like economic crisis and collapse, fear of poverty and unemployment.
-Marx DID recognize the importance of ideas and meanings when he discussed class consciousness, so Gramsci is wrong.
What does Althusser say ?
Althusser still retains the structuralist emphasis of traditional Marxism on the way social
structures and the economy are still the key influences on people’s ideas and behaviour
Disagrees with Gramsci who argues that:
-People have more free will and choice than Marx suggested (Althusser says they do not)
Political ideas and action are more important than economic factors in bringing about revolutionary change (this is not entirely true according to Althusser)
Socialism won’t come through a change in consciousness (whereas Gramsci
states it will), but through a crisis in capitalism leading to ‘over-determination’
(contradictions in the 3 levels) that leads to the collapse of the system overall
-Only when the 3 levels are in chaos will change occur
Evaluation of Althusser :
-Ignores the fact that it is the active struggles of the W/C that can change society
-Other sociologists might suggest that Althusser’s ideas are purely theoretical and
lack empirical evidence
-Use Gramsci’s POV to criticize Althusser as Gramsci states we have a dual consciousness
