1922-40 Foreign Policy

Question 1

What were Mussolini’s foreign policy aims?

Answer 1

-To create a modern Roman empire that rivalled that of the ancient Caesar’s.
-To distract the Italians from their miserable conditions at home.
-Humiliated by Versailles Peace Treaty.
-More territories to settle the surplus Italian population and to acquire raw materials.
-To expand to show Italy’s national greatness as preached in fascist doctrines.

Question 2

What were Italy’s main problems for Mussolini’s foreign policy goals?

Answer 2

-Italy’s geographical position.
-Limited economic resources.
-Weak position after Versailles.
-Backwardness in technology.
-Poorer literacy and skills than competitors.
-Weaker navy and air force than competitors.

Question 3

When and why did Italy invade Corfu?

Answer 3

An Italian government official had been murdered by Greeks and Mussolini demanded that the Greek government pay 50 million lire in compensation. On 31st August 1923, Italy bombarded Corfu and occupied the island. This won Mussolini domestic support as he was standing up for Italy’s pride.

Question 4

Why did Italy leave Corfu on 27th September 1923?

Answer 4

The League of Nations with British backing demanded that Italy end the invasion and Mussolini was informed that Italy’s navy would barely last 48 hours if Britain chose to act. However Italy did ultimately gain the 50 million lira in compensation from Greece.

Question 5

What significant foreign policy success happened in 1924?

Answer 5

Yugoslavia recognised the port of Fiume as being part of Italy which showed Mussolini to be stronger than previous liberal governments.

Question 6

Why was Mussolini’s participation in the Locarno Pact 1925 important?

Answer 6

It was a significant agreement between European powers to minimise the threat to European peace, including Germany, Britain and France. This indicated to the Italian people that Mussolini was being accepted as an equal to the other great European powers.

Question 7

How did Mussolini gain power in Albania when Zog became Albanian president in 1925?

Answer 7

Italy backed his accession and through the support and bribery of Zog, Albania became an informal Italian protectorate. This extended Italian influence in South-Eastern Europe at the expense of Yugoslavia.

Question 8

What did Mussolini do to end the rebellion in Libya that had started during WW1?

Answer 8

In 1929, Marshal Badoglio took control of the war and used brutal policies of starvation, mass execution, chemical warfare and the use of concentration camps. The rebel leader was captured and publicly hanged in 1931 and Italy finally put down the rebellion in 1932.

Question 9

What was the Four Power Pact?

Answer 9

An agreement to bring the four powers of Britain, France, Italy and Germany together which was signed in 1933 and gave international prestige to Mussolini. However, France’s allies objected to the pact so it was never ratified by Britain or France and Germany was no longer interested when Hitler came to power.

Question 10

Why did Mussolini fear Anschluss and what did he do to stop it?

Answer 10

Austria acted as a buffer between Italy and Germany and Mussolini didn’t want the increasingly powerful Germany at his borders as Hitler might seek to regain the Austrian irredente lands that Italy gained after WW1. Mussolini proclaimed he wouldn’t allow Anschluss and he mobilised 4 divisions and moved to the Brenner Frontier between Italy and Austria. Hitler also refused to back the Austrian Nazis.

Question 11

Why did the Stresa Front take place in April 1935?

Answer 11

Hitler had openly announced Germany’s rearmament which posed a threat to the Treaty of Versailles so Mussolini met with the French and British foreign and prime ministers to issue a resolution stating their desire for peace and their commitment to the League of Nations.

Question 12

Why did the Stresa Front break down?

Answer 12

Italy invaded Abyssinia in 1935 which was opposed by both Britain and France as they thought it went against the Stresa Front agreement.

Question 13

What was Italy’s relationship with Britain like before the Abyssinian War?

Answer 13

Warm relations after the Stresa Front and they had cooperated previously on the Locarno Treaty. They were both members of the League of Nations and Italy was dependent on British finance to revalue the lira in 1927. However, they had clashed over the Corfu Incident and Mussolini resented British navy and colonial influence in the Mediterranean.

Question 14

What was Italy’s relationship like with France before the Abyssinian War?

Answer 14

Like Britain, they had cooperated in the Stresa Front, the Locarno Pact and were both members of the League of Nations. They also had many trading links and historical ties. However, anti-fascist exiles had settled in France like the Rosselli brothers and France possessed irredente lands like Nice and Corsica. They were both rivals over the Mediterranean and Italy was particularly angry about French control in Tunisia.

Question 15

What was Italy’s relationship like with Germany before the Abyssinian War?

Answer 15

They both wanted to revise the post-war treaties and challenge territorial boundaries and the leaders shared similar ideologies, with Hitler admiring the March on Rome. However, Hitler withdrew from the League of Nations in 1933 and there were tensions over Austrian sovereignty.

Question 16

What were the main reasons for the invasion of Abyssinia between 1935 and 1936?

Answer 16

To recreate the Roman Empire and consolidate Italian territory in North Africa, to take advantage of good relations with Britain and France and win respect from other nations like Hitler, to achieve a quick and relatively easy win and avenge the humiliation of the defeat at Adowa in 1896, to gain popularity and unity at home and develop colonies for trade and settlement and also to find new resources such as oil.

Question 17

What were the positive consequences of the Abyssinian War?

Answer 17

It won Mussolini a lot of domestic support and was the high point of the fascist dictatorship as he was portrayed as a leader who was standing up to the whole world and defying attempts to limit Italian power. He was also fulfilling the image of a new Caesar who was expanding the Italian empire. The sanctions were also a propaganda coup as it made the Italians stand behind Mussolini as they felt that their leader was being picked on by other nations. It also demonstrated that Italy was a modern, technologically advanced power (parachuting sheep from planes) and the war won him the respect of Hitler and Germany became Italy’s main ally, signing the Rome-Berlin Axis in 1936. Germany also didn’t put any sanctions on Italy.

Question 18

What impact did the sanctions placed on Italy by all but 4 members of the League of Nations countries have on Italy?

Answer 18

The lira devalued by 40% and the budget deficit rose from 2.5 billion to 16 billion lire. It massively hurt Italian trade and exports and made Italy very dependent on Germany for trade.

Question 19

What were the negative consequences of the Abyssinian War?

Answer 19

Around 10,000 Italian soldiers died and the use of chemical weapons and the bombing of village settlements in the war was regarded as barbaric which horrified other nations. The war also created a rift with Britain and France and the warmer relations after the Stresa Front were never recovered.

Question 20

Why did Mussolini get involved in the Spanish Civil War in 1936?

Answer 20

-His new ally Hitler was supporting General Franco
-He wanted to stop the spread of communism in Europe
-To spread the axis of fascist style governments across Europe
-To demonstrate the superiority of the Italian military
-To gain strategic or military advantages from Spain such as naval bases or an alliance
-To consolidate his political position and status in Italy

Question 21

Why did Mussolini provide such an immense amount of support for Franco?

Answer 21

He wanted to show off Italy’s power so provided 75,000 troops (supposedly volunteers), 950 tanks and 400 planes. (Compared to only 16,000 troops and 200 tanks provided by Nazi Germany).

Question 22

What were the economic costs of intervention in the Spanish Civil War?

Answer 22

It disrupted trade and started the commercial dependence on Germany. The war combined with the ongoing war in Abyssinia ‘bled Italy white’ as it cost 14 billion lire which was half a year’s tax revenues and caused devaluation of the lira.

Question 23

What were the political costs of the Spanish Civil War on Italy?

Answer 23

The war was unpopular and lost Mussolini support and Mussolini gained no territory or naval bases from Spain and Spain also remained neutral in WW2. It also led to isolation from Britain and France who didn’t get involved and the defeat at Guadalajara was humiliating for Italy as the Italian army had been beaten by anti-fascist volunteers (Italian Garibaldi Brigade). It also hampered Italy’s aims in Abyssinia as the military had to be split between the two wars and the military was substantially weaker in 1939 than in 1936. 3,266 soldiers were killed and 11,000 wounded.

Question 24

Why did Italian foreign policy become more radical after the Abyssinian War?

Answer 24

Mussolini thought that it showed the weakness of Britain and France and he believed that Italy’s aggressive actions would enhance his own power domestically as well as challenge the old balance of power in Europe. The Rome-Berlin Axis of 1936 also aligned Italian foreign policy with Germany’s whose own foreign policy was aggressive too.

Question 25

How did the Spanish Civil War worsen relations with Britain and France?

Answer 25

The intervention aimed at undermining France’s influence in the Mediterranean which France wouldn’t be happy about. Italian submarines also attacked and sunk neutral shipping in the Mediterranean which angered Britain. This was worsened when an Italian bombing raid on Spanish ports sunk 11 British ships.

Question 26

What did the Gentleman’s Agreement between Britain and Italy in 1937 confirm?

Answer 26

The status quo in the Mediterranean and it limited Italy’s intervention in the Spanish Civil War. However Mussolini simply ignored it and it had little real effect and Britain failed in its attempts to stop Italy’s move towards Germany.

Question 27

How did Mussolini justify the strong alliance with Germany to the Fascist Grand Council in 1939?

Answer 27

He calls Italy a prisoner of the Mediterranean as their access to the oceans was controlled by Britain and France. He says that he needs the support of a strong European nation like Germany to help Italy break free from this prison. This would allow Italy to expand its empire.

Question 28

What were the other reasons for the alliance with Germany?

Answer 28

Anschluss meant that Germany was now in Italy’s borders so an alliance with Germany would take Italy out of the possible line of fire, Italy had become dependent on Germany for exports, they were both unhappy about the Treaty of Versailles, Mussolini wanted to use an alliance with Germany to gain concessions from Britain in the Mediterranean, the invasion of Albania pushed Italy even further away from Britain and France, Mussolini admired the strong militarism of Germany and the immense support the people had for Hitler.

Question 29

When was Mussolini at his most powerful in Italy?

Answer 29

Around 1936 after the successful invasion of Abyssinia.

Question 30

When did Hitler become more powerful than Mussolini and why?

Answer 30

Around 1937 as the Italian economy declined and intervention in Spain was unpopular in Italy. Meanwhile, Hitler was becoming increasingly powerful.

Question 31

How did the relative power of Mussolini and Hitler affect relations between Italy and Germany?

Answer 31

When Mussolini was more powerful, Hitler was being influenced by Mussolini such as not supporting the Anschluss in 1934 and admiring the Abyssinian War. When both leaders had similar amounts of power, the relations were at their most harmonious as neither was trying to exploit the other for their power and they treated each other as equals. For example the Rome-Berlin Axis and Anti-Comintern Pact. However, when Hitler became more powerful he stopped consulting Mussolini so much and Italy became increasingly influenced by Germany, adopting anti-semitism and the goose step in 1937 and Hitler breaking the Anti-Comintern Pact with the Nazi-Soviet Pact in 1939.

Question 32

What was Mussolini able to do at the Munich Conference in 1938 because of his alliance with Germany?

Answer 32

He posed as peace-maker when in reality he was passing messages between Germany and the Allies which increased his domestic support as he was portrayed as a strong leader who managed to achieve world peace at this conference.

Question 33

When did Mussolini accept the Anschluss?

Answer 33

1938 and Hitler was very grateful to Mussolini for doing so.

Question 34

What were the disadvantages of the German alliance?

Answer 34

Germany was becoming increasingly powerful and it could pose a threat to Italy as it now bordered Italy. Italy would also have to go along with whatever Hitler wanted which could drag them into a costly German conflict. The aggressive militarism of Germany encouraged Mussolini’s involvement in Spain and the invasion of Albania which isolated Italy from other powers. The dependence on Germany as a trading partner limited Italy’s commercial markets. The Pact of Steel was controlled by Germany and the Rome-Berlin Axis meant Italy lost foreign policy independence. Austria was also Italy’s traditional enemy and German customs like anti-Semitism were unpopular.

Question 35

What did the Pact of Steel 1939 do and who wrote it?

Answer 35

It was a formal and binding agreement between Germany and Italy that committed them to support each other in war (most alliances committed the other to support them only if the ally was invaded- here Italy would have to support any German invasions). The Nazis wrote it and it largely benefited them.

Question 36

What did the Italian invasion of Albania show?

Answer 36

It was meant to show Italy’s strength after Hitler invaded Czechoslovakia without consulting Mussolini. It was also meant as compensation for the Italian people after Mussolini allowed the Anschluss to happen. However all it showed was the aggressive nature of fascist Italy and it demonstrated the weakness of the Italian army. Many of the Italian soldiers were unorganised and using weapons that they had never been trained in and there was poor coordination between the army, navy and air force.

Question 37

Why did Italy sign the Pact of Steel in 1939?

Answer 37

They were at a time of relative weakness as they were hugely over-stretched trying to control Albania, Libya and Abyssinia. There were also 200,000 non-Italians living close to the vulnerable border with Germany- from land gained from Austria-Hungary after WW1. It was in Italy’s interests to ally itself with Europe’s dominant power, especially as Germany had assured them that they didn’t intend to start a war any time soon. Italian trade had also become dependent on Germany and the Albanian invasion had pushed Italy even further from Britain and France. They also both had similar ideologies of expansionist, fascist style right wing dictatorships.

Question 38

Why were there domestic tensions in Italy in the late 1930s?

Answer 38

The foreign policy direction concerned many Italians as did the alliance with Germany. Between 1935-1937, military spending accounted for 80% of the massive increase in the state deficit and the squeeze on the middle class to fund this was unpopular. The quest for autarky meant many consumer goods became more expensive and the Battle for Grain worsened the Italian diet. The economy was in decline and the image of Il Duce as a young, dynamic leader was becoming harder to sustain. The Reform of Customs appeared ridiculous and there was also anger and fear at the Anschluss. There was also a highly unpopular policy where half a million workers were transferred to Germany by 1945 and were treated poorly.

Question 39

Which factors mitigated the threat to Mussolini in the late 1930s?

Answer 39

-There was no evidence that anti-fascist politics were undergoing an upsurge.
-The police were still functioning effectively.
-Mussolini was still popular even though the PNF were not.
-By 1939, there was a whole generation who grew up with no alternative to Mussolini and they couldn’t imagine an Italy without him.

Question 40

What does non-belligerent mean?

Answer 40

Italy didn’t get involved militarily in WW2 but still supported Germany. (Couldn’t be neutral as Mussolini had openly criticised neutralists in WW1 and called them traitors).

Question 41

What were the strategic reasons for Italy’s non-belligerence at the start of WW2 in 1939, despite the Pact of Steel?

Answer 41

Mussolini didn’t want to remain neutral because if Germany won, they would be angry at Italy’s betrayal and Germany was now on Italy’s borders. Mussolini wanted to enter the war when it was clear Germany would win soon, play a decisive role and then claim benefits post-war for helping Germany without losing too many men or being involved in a long and costly war.

Question 42

What were the economic reasons for Italy’s non-belligerence at the start of WW2 in 1939, despite the Pact of Steel?

Answer 42

Mussolini sent a letter to Hitler on 22nd August saying that Italy couldn’t join in because they needed 170 million tonnes of goods to get involved effectively. In September 1939, Italy only had enough steel for 2 weeks military supply.

Question 43

What were the military reasons for Italy’s non-belligerence at the start of WW2 in 1939, despite the Pact of Steel?

Answer 43

Mussolini was urged by Ciano to avoid getting entangled into a costly war as the state of the army was poor and Italy wasn’t ready to do any serious fighting.

Question 44

What were the diplomatic reasons for Italy’s non-belligerence at the start of WW2 in 1939, despite the Pact of Steel?

Answer 44

Mussolini wanted to keep the option of a western alliance open and he was angry at Germany’s betrayal of the Anti-Comintern Pact by signing the Nazi-Soviet Pact in 1939.