1894-1904 Flashcards
What percentage of the population were peasants?
82% of the population.
How many people had been serfs before the Emancipation Edict of 1861?
Between 60 and 70 million people had been serfs.
What was Russia’s death rate compared to Britain’s?
35 per 1000 compared to Britain’s 18 per 1000.
What percentage of imperial revenue did peasants, urban workers and tradesmen provide?
Peasants, urban workers and tradesmen provided about 90% of the imperial revenue.
What was the Mir and what did it do?
By 1894, the Mir was the centre of the rural community. It organised taxes, soldiers for the government army and decided how land would be divided. Peasants still had restricted movement and had large redemption payments still to pay off in return for their legal freedom.
What were the ‘Dark Masses’?
The peasants’ size as a social class caused them to be viewed as a threat - could only be held in check by severe repression, so were kept illiterate.
What was ‘Safe Ignorance’?
Thought that any attempt to raise the educational standards of the masses would prove highly dangerous, socially and politically. Only 4% of governmental money was spent on education.
What was Russification?
A policy whereby Russian was declared to be the official language and Russian ways and values were imposed on all people.
How did Pobedonostsev’s tutoring impact Nicholas II?
As a young man he had been tutored by Pobedonostsev, who was an arch-conservative and dismissed the idea of any form of representative government. As such, Nicholas grew up fearing reform - reactionary.
How big was the Russian army?
He had the world’s largest army of 1.5 million conscripted men - it absorbed 45% of governmental annual expenditure.
When was Witte named Minister of Finance?
1893
What was the ‘Great Spurt’ in the 1890s?
Russian industry developed very rapidly, marked by an increase in coal in Ukraine and oil from the Caucasus region.
Why did Witte put the Russian currency in the gold standard in 1897, and was it successful? (Witte’s economic reforms.)
Hoped to create financial stability and encourage international investment in Russia.
Largely successful but penalised consumers as protective tariffs meant they had to pay higher prices that traders used to keep pace with increased value of the rouble. Prices tended to rise as a result of tariffs making goods scarcer.
Why did Witte build the Trans-Siberian railway, and was it successful? (Witte’s economic reforms.)
Hoped improvements in transport would boost exports and foreign trade, and to increase west-east migration.
Trade figures suggest Witte’s hopes were largely fulfilled however production per head was lower than the aggregate figures suggested. Didn’t greatly increase west-east migration.
Russia was now too dependent upon foreign loans, neglected vital areas such as light engineering and paid no attention to Russia’s agricultural needs.
Some parts still incomplete by 1914.
When was the Trans-Siberian railway constructed and how far did it span?
Began in 1891, completed in 1902, however some parts were still incomplete by 1914.
5770 miles, Moscow to Vladivostok.
How did river and sea navigation improve, and was it successful? (Witte’s economic reforms.)
Increase in the number of steam ships, but most overseas trade was still carried out in foreign ships and Russia’s roads weren’t improved at all.
How did Witte improve production, and was it successful? (Witte’s economic reforms.)
Witte concentrated production in key areas and developed large factory units of over 1000 workers so increases in the heavy goods industry could be achieved.
Industrial output of the textile industry was 1.5 times greater than that of coal mining, oil, minerals and metal trades put together.
Why did Witte buy up private railway companies, and was it successful? (Witte’s economic reforms.)
So that construction of new long-distance state railways could begin.
By mid-1890s, 60% of the whole railway system was state-owned and by 1905, this proportion had increased to nearly 66% and Russia had 59,616 km of railways - this aided development in iron and coal industries. Transport costs fell, which brought down the price of goods, while the government gained new revenue from freight charges and passenger fares.
What were some successes to Witte’s economic reforms?
Foreign investment poured in - France became the biggest backer.
Foreign experts arrived in Russia to advise on planning - came from France, Belgium, Germany, Britain and Sweden.
Between 1867-1917, the urban population quadrupled as peasants left rural areas.
8% annual growth rate 1894-1904. 1914 saw Russia ranked 2nd in the world for oil production and 4th in gold mining.
Railways expanded.
Overall Russia became the 4th largest industrial economy in the world.
What were some disadvantages to Witte’s economic reforms?
Grain requisitioning for profit abroad led to inadequate grain supplies for the peasants.
Dependent on foreign loans.
Railways incomplete by 1914.
By 1914, the number of factory workers was still less than 2% of the population.
Trade recession 1900-1908 - unrest and strikes resulted.
Despite Russia’s economic growth, its underdevelopment meant Russia was starting from a much lower level of production - although its 96.8% growth (1898-1913) looked to be over twice that of Britain’s (40%), it was playing catch-up.
What were the main shortcomings of the agrarian economy (1894-1904)?
Inadequate land provision for the peasants.
Russia’s rural population more than doubled from 1861-1913.
Inefficiency of Russian agriculture was exposed in the world depression in agricultural prices after 1879 when cheap US grain imports hit the European market - Russian estates were unprofitable.
The Mir was an obstacle to the introduction of new methods, requiring the agreement of the entire village to introduce change, Russian crop yields were far below that of Western Europe and it was responsible for paying redemption taxes. Acted to prevent innovation.
Backwards methods continued: strips were inefficient, lack of technology.
Output from US farms was 1.5 times greater, output from British farms was 4 times greater.
What were the liberals’ demands?
Universal suffrage.
A constitution and representative government.
Self-determination for different nationalities.
After the SD 1903 split, who led the Bolsheviks and what were their aims?
Led by Lenin.
Majority.
Believed in restricted membership and centralised leadership.
Immediate revolution should be the goal - the workers must be educated to organise for revolution.
After the SD 1903 split, who led the Mensheviks and what were their aims?
Led by Martov.
Minority.
Believed membership should be open to all.
Revolution would take longer as Marx predicted. There should first be industrialisation.
Revolution would come from the workers themselves rather than from the leadership.
Who led the SRs and what did they believe?
Led by Chernov (member of intelligentsia).
Influenced by Marxism.
Formed out of the People’s Will in 1901.
Largely peasant based - believed peasants and industrial workers should work together to get rid of autocracy.
Saw peasants as a revolutionary force and called for land redistribution.
What were the SRs’ methods?
Encouraged strikes in towns and discontent in the countryside.
Terrorism was also carried out - 2,000 political assassinations took place between 1901 and 1905, including Interior Minister Plehve (head of Okhrana) and the tsar’s uncle, Grand Duke Sergei.
How did Nicholas deal with revolutionary opposition in the period up to 1904?
Contained by the Okhrana and army.
However, urban striker and peasant unrest increased.
