1.77TScience and tech Flashcards
Biotechnology.-CRISPR /Cas9
Crispr/Cas9 is related to genome editing. (Genome: Complete DNA sequence)
CRISPR stands for clustered regularly interspaced short palindromic repeats
In simple terms, a DNA sequence is cut at a particular spot and then with help of a guide RNA (gRNA) that place
is re-made with desired base pairing. This way genes can be altered.
It allows scientists to selectively edit genome parts and replace them with new DNA stretches
Cas9 is the enzyme which acts as a “molecular scissors” and helps in cutting the DNA sequence.
CRISPR is a collection of DNA sequences that direct Cas9 where to cut and paste
DMH-11 (GM Mustard)
It is a Genetically Modified Mustard
Developed by the Centre for Genetic Manipulation of Crop Plants of Delhi University
If it gets the green light from the environment ministry’s GEAC, it will be the first GM food crop to be
commercially cultivated in India
It was a government sponsored project
Embryo Transfer Technology (ETT)
ETT is one of the most important reproductive biotechnologies where male and female genetic material can be
utilized for faster improvement of livestock.
It has revolutionized breeding strategies in Bovines as tool to optimize genetic improvement in cattle.
Using it, embryos of higher genetic merit indigenous bovines such as Sahiwal, Gir, Red Sindhi, Ongole, Deoni
and Vechur are being transferred in to surrogate cows.
Government is taking this technology to doorstep of farmers for rapid propogation of high genetic merit
indigenous cattle.
Benefits of using ETT:
o Farmer can get 5-6 fold increase in number of offsprings.
o So born calves will be of high genetic merit
o Offsprings born will be free from diseases.
Mitochondrial Replacement Therapy
It is also called Mitochondrial Gene Therapy
MRT or Mitochondrial donation is a medical technique in which defective mitochondria carried by a woman is
replaced with the healthy mitochondria of a donor.
Through invitro fertilization technique (IVF), the egg is then fertilised with the partner’s sperm. Thus the
embryo remains free from any such defects.
The two most common techniques in mitochondrial donation are maternal spindle transfer and pronuclear
transfer.
Thus this medical technique prevents the transmission of mitochondrial (genetic) disease from one generation
to the next.
MRT proposes to give parents chance of having a child that is over 99% genetically matched to them and most
importantly free of the mitochondrial disease
Benefits:
o It will prevent transmission of mitochondrial (genetic) disease from one generation to the next.
o It will give parents chance of having a child that is over 99% genetically matched to them and most
importantly free of the mitochondrial disease.
o It has no impact on personality or looks of the offspring from third DNA set, as surrogate mitochondrial
DNA is separate from core DNA in cells.
Why in news?
o First three parent child was born via this technique in Mexico
o UK became first country in world to legalise MGT
Rotavac
It is a vaccine used to protect against rotavirus infections.
These viruses are the leading cause of severe diarrhea among young children
Vaccine reduces risk of death due to diarrhea
India based Bharat Biotech produces Rotavac
It was developed under the joint collaboration between India and United States in area of medical research
It was developed under public-private partnership (PPP) model that involved Ministry of Science and
Technology, institutions of the US Government and NGOs in India supported by Bill and Melinda Gates
Foundation.
Why in news?
Rotavac became first Indigenously developed vaccine from India to be pre-qualified by World Health
Organisation (WHO).
Rotavirus
It is a most common causative agent of moderate-to-severe diarrhoea (MSD) among infants below 11 months
age group in India.
It spreads from person to person due to bacterial and parasiting agents that are primarily transmitted through
contaminated food or water.
It is responsible for estimated 36% of hospitalisations for childhood diarrhoea around world and for estimated
200,000 deaths in low- and middle-income countries.
In India, diarrhoea caused by rotavirus, kills nearly 80 thousand children under age of 5 years and up to 10 lakh
hospitalizations each year.
Advanced Towed Artillery Gun System (ATAGS)
It is fully indigenously built towed artillery gun system
Developed by DRDO and private sector consortium
It has a longer firing range of 40 Kms with accuracy and precision and provides greater fire power.
It is also has night firing capability in direct fire mode
It has several significant features such as an all-electric drive, quick deploy ability, high mobility, auxiliary power
mode, advanced communication system, and automated command and control system.
Agni I
Intermediate range
Nuclear capable
Surface-to-surface
Ballistic
It is first missile of the Agni series launched in 1983.
Developed by DRDO + DRDL (Defence Research Development Laboratory) + BDL (Bharat Dynamics Limited,
Hyderabad)
It weighs 12 tonnes and is 15-metre-long.
It is designed to carry a payload of more than one tonne.
It is single stage missile powered by solid propellants.
It can hit a target 700 km away.
Its strike range can be extended by reducing the payload.
It can be fired from road and rail mobile launchers.
It is equipped with sophisticated navigation system which ensures it reaches the target with a high degree of
accuracy and precision.
The missile already has been inducted into armed forces.
Since its induction it has proved its excellent performance in terms of range, accuracy and lethality.
It is also claimed to be a part of the India’s minimum credible deterrence under No first to use policy
Agni-II
Agni-II is two-stage nuclear capable surface-to-surface missile developed indigenously by DRDO.
It is 21-metre long and weighs 17 tonnes.
It has strike range of 2000 kilometres, which can also be increased to 3000km by reducing the payload.
It is propelled by the solid rocket propellant system.
It can carry a nuclear payload of 1 thousand kilograms.
It is one of the sophisticated weapons that can act as a deterrent against nuclear-armed neighbours.
It is equipped with advanced high accuracy navigation system.
It is guided by a novel scheme of state of the art command and control system.
It can be fired from both rail and road mobile launchers and it takes only 15 minutes for the missile to be readied
for firing.
Agni V
It is an intercontinental ballistic missile
It is three-stage solid propellant nuclear-capable missile
It is a surface-to-surface missile
Developed by DRDO
Range : 5500-5800km
Engine : 3 stage solid fuel
Capable of carrying nuclear warheads of over one tonne
It carries Multiple Independently Targetable Re-entry Vehicles (MIRV) payloads. A single MIRV equipped
missile that can deliver multiple warheads at different targets
It is also a fire and forget missile, which once fired cannot be stopped, except by interceptor missile which only
US, Russia and Israel have.
Akash Missile
Akash Missile System
Indigenously developed by Defence Research and Development Organisation (DRDO) under the Integrated
Guided-Missile Development Programme (IGMDP).
Mid-range surface-to-air anti-aircraft missile
Supersonic speeds ranging from Mach 2.8 to 3.5
Nuclear capable
It is multi target, multi directional, all weather air-defence system consisting of surveillance and tracking radars.
Akash is powered by Ramjet-rocket propulsion system
Astra Missile
It is a beyond-visual-range air-to-air missile (BVRAAM)
Astra is designed to be capable of engaging targets at varying range and altitudes allowing for engagement of
both short-range targets (up to 20 km) and long-range targets (up to 80 km) using alternative propulsion
modes.
It is indigenously developed by DRDO.
It is a single stage solid fuelled missile.
Barak Missile
Barak is a Hebrew word for lightening
It is an Indian-Isreli Long Range surface-to-air missile
It is nuclear capable ballistic missile
It is designed to defend against any type of airborne threat including aircraft, helicopters, anti-ship missiles,
and UAVs as well as cruise missiles and combat jets out to a maximum range of 70 km
Both maritime and land-based versions of the system exist
Jointly developed by Israel Aerospace Industries (IAI) and DRDO
Bhabha Kavach
BARC has developed Bhabha Kavach, a next-generation bulletproof jacket that is cheaper, lightweight.
Bhabha Kavach is made of boron carbide and carbon nanotube polymer composite and weighs just 6.6
kg.
The materials used in it reduce weight by nearly 50% as compared to presently used heavy steel-armoured
jackets that weigh between 10kg to 17kg.
It has passed over 30 tests carried out by certified agencies.
These materials have been indigenously developed at BARC and are spin-off from nuclear technology
Apart from being lighter, sturdier and more reliable, Bhabha Kavach is also cost effective.
It will cost Rs 60,000-70,000 as compared to imported bulletproof jackets costing around Rs 1.5 lakh.
Bhabha Kavach is able to withstand eight 7.62mm bullets fired from AK-47 rifle from distance of 5-10 metres. It
can even withstand 5.56mm bullet of Indian Small Arms System (INSAS).
Brahmos
Supersonic cruise missile
Designed and developed by BrahMos Aerospace, a joint venture of India and Russia
It has derived its name from the names of two rivers, India’s Brahmaputra River and Russia’s Moskva River.
It operates on fire and forget principal
Capable of being launched from land, sea, sub-sea and air against sea and land targets
Carrying capacity : 300 Kg
Speed : Mach 3 (that is, three times the speed of sound)
Max Range : 290 Km
It is two-stage missile, the first one being solid and the second one ramjet liquid propellant.
BrahMos missile already has been inducted into the Indian Army and Navy
New Developments
India and Russia have agreed to double the range from 290 to 600 kms
Earlier, India was denied access to the missile technology with range over 300 km as it was not member state of
the Missile Technology Control Regime (MTCR). But India’s recent accession to MTCR, allowed Russia to
provide the critical systems and technology to extend the range of the missile beyond 300km.
It is successfully test fired from Sukhoi-30MKI fighter jets. It makes IAF first air force in world to have
successfully fire air-launched 2.8 Mach surface attack missile of this category.
C-17 Globemaster
It is US Made transport aircraft
Manufactured by Boeing
The aircraft is capable of strategic delivery of personnel and/or equipment to operating locations.
It can carry out tactical airlift and airdrop missions as well as transport litters and ambulatory patients.
Dhanush ATAGS
It is indigenous Advanced Towed Artillery Gun System (ATAGS)
It is based on the 1980s’ Bofors FH-77B/39 Calibre artillery gun design.
Its indigenous development is aided by the transfer of technology (ToT) clause signed with the Swedish
company.
It is developed by DRDO in collaboration with private companies
It boasts a range of 45 km with accuracy and precision and provides greater fire power, depending on the type of
ammunition used.
It also has night firing capability in direct fire mode.
It has several significant features such as an all-electric drive, quick deploy ability, high mobility, auxiliary power
mode, advanced communication system, and automated command and control system.
Dhanush Missile
e
Dhanush missile is also known as Prithvi-III.
It is naval variant of indigenously-developed Prithvi-II missile.
Its design features customisations to Prithvi platform to make it suitable for launch from ship.
It is short-range ballistic missile capable of carrying nuclear as well as conventional warheads.
It has length of 8.53 meters and 0.9 metre wide is capable of carrying a payload of 500 kg and is capable of
hitting both land and sea-based targets.
It can be used for both ship-to-ship and ship-to-surface strikes.
It has declared strike range of 350 km
Kalvari Class Submarines
It is a class of submarines based on Scorpene class submarines
It is a class of diesel-electric attack submarine
They are being built under technology transfer agreement with France
They are being built under P75 (Project 75)
The project was necessitated by the dwindling number of submarines in the Indian Navy.
They use guided weapons such as tube-launched anti-ship missiles and torpedoes on enemy submarines from
the surface or underwater.
Besides warfare, they can perform varied functions will include intelligence gathering, mine laying and area
surveillance etc.
2 Scorpene class submarines already inducted are:
o INS Kalvari
o INS Khanderi
Laser Weapons System (LaWS)
Laser Weapons System (LaWS) are being developed and tested by USA
LaWS operates within an invisible part of the electromagnetic spectrum.
It strikes are extremely accurate, silent and invisible.
It is primarily intended to take on drones, aircraft, and small vessels that could be used in an attack.
The system has special materials that release photons at the speed of light.
It silently hits the target, burning it to a temperature of thousands of degrees.
It can even target a single component of an enemy target and disable or destroy it as necessary.
Each strike of the system travels 50,000 times the speed of an incoming ICBM (Intercontinental Ballistic
Missile).
It is a very versatile weapon that can be used against a variety of targets in air or surface targets or ground-based
targets.
Its precise nature can also limit collateral damage in wartime.
Its cost per use is approximately $1 per shot.
The system requires electrical power and a three-man team.
US is also developing second generation LaWS system which is believed to be intended to take on faster targets
such as incoming missiles.
M777 Guns
India is acquiring these artillery guns from USA
It will increase army’s capabilities in High Altitudes
It will be deployed in Northern and Eastern Sectors
The modular design of the guns would come handy in towing the guns along the narrow and treacherous
mountain roads that is found in India’s borders with both Pakistan and China.
It will be especially used by the army’s new mountain strike corps which is being raised to counter China in the
Northeast. The new corps is expected to be fully operational by 2025.
The guns can also be airlifted by using heavy-lift helicopters like the Chinook. India has signed an agreement to
acquire Chinook from the US.
The C130J Super Hercules, which are used for strategic airlift by India is also capable of airlifting M777 guns.
MR-SAM
MR-SAM stands for medium range surface-to-air missile
Jointly developed by India and Israel
Supersonic missile system
The missile consists of Multi-Functional Surveillance and Threat Alert Radar (MF-STAR) system for detection,
tracking and guidance
The MR-SAM has strike ranges from 50 to 70 km
MRSAM is a land-based variant of the long-range surface-to-air missile (LRSAM) or Barak-8 naval air
defence system, which is designed to operate from naval vessels.
The missile is designed to defend any type of airborne threat including aircraft and helicopters. It can intercept
supersonic aircraft and even missiles
The system will be based on the older Barak system of Israel, which is in use in India. It will be manufactured in
India and will have an 80% indigenous content.
The MRSAM is operational with the Indian Air Force, Indian Navy and Israel Defense Forces. Its deployment in
Indian Army will help in plugging the existing holes in India’s air defence coverage.
Why in news? New deal is signed with Israel to provide Indian Army with Barak-8 advanced MRSAM systems.
Muntra - Unmanned Tank
It is an unmanned remotely operated tank.
Developed by DRDO.
It has been launched in three variants:
o Muntra-S : For surveillance
o Muntra-M : For mine detection.
o Muntra-N : For reconnaissance in areas with nuclear and biological threats. It is also likely to be used in
Naxal-hit areas.
The Muntra variants have surveillance radar, an integrated camera along with laser range finder which can be
used to spy on ground target 15km away – heavy vehicles or crawling men.
Nag missile
It is a “Fire and Forget” anti-tank missile
It is a guided missile
Developed by DRDO under Integrated Guided Missile Development Program.
The NAG ATGM has strike range of over 2.5km with fire and forget capabilities.
It has top attack capabilities that can effectively engage and destroy all known enemy tanks during day and
night.
The missile incorporates an advanced passive homing guidance system and possesses high single-shot kill
probability. It is designed to destroy modern main battle tanks and other heavily armoured targets.
Nag can be launched from land and air-based platforms.
It is in service since 2015.
It is developed under Indian Ministry of Defence’s integrated guided missile development programme (IGMDP),
which also involved the development of four other missiles that are Agni, Akash, Trishul and Prithvi
Nirbhay missile
It is a long range missile
It is a surface-to-surface missile
It takes off vertically like a missile and cruise horizontally like an aircraft.
Sub-sonic cruise missile
Developed by DRDO
Can carry conventional as well as nuclear war-head
It can operate in all type of weathers
Range : 1000km
It is a terrain hugging missile which keeps on encircling the area of its target for several minutes and then
hits bull’s eye’ on an opportune time. It is difficult to detect by enemy’s radars
Prithvi Advanced Air Defence (AAD)
It is indigenously developed supersonic interceptor missile
It is capable of destroying any incoming ballistic missile in low altitude.
The Prithvi interceptor is a 7.5-meter long single stage solid rocket propelled guided missile.
It is equipped with a navigation system, a hi-tech computer and electro-mechanical activator.
It can destroy the incoming hostile ballistic missile in endo-atmospheric region (less than 30 km
altitude) at a low altitude of less than 30 kms.
The state-of-the-art missile has its own mobile launcher, secure data link for interception, independent tracking
and homing capabilities and sophisticated radars
Prithvi II
Prithvi-II is the first missile to be indigenously developed by the DRDO under the Integrated Guided Missile
Development Programme.
Range: It is surface-to-surface medium range ballistic missile with strike range of 350 km.
Warheads: It is capable of carrying 500 kg to 1000 kg of conventional as well as nuclear warheads.
Fuel and stages:
o It is single-stage liquid-fuelled.
o It uses advanced inertial guidance system along with manoeuvring trajectory to hit its target precisely.
o It already has been inducted into India’s armed forces in 2003.
Variants:
o Prithvi-I for the Indian Army,
o Prithvi-II for the Indian Air Force, and
o Dhanush Missile for Indian Navy.
Project 75
Under Project 75, six Scorpene submarines are being built with assistance and technology transfer from DCNS
of France under deal signed in October 2005.
The Scorpene class submarines are a class of diesel-electric attack submarine
The first of the series INS Kalvari is completing sea trials and will be commissioned shortly.
The other four submarines are expected to be launched at nine-month intervals after the INS Khanderi.
At Present, the Indian Navy operates only 13 conventionally powered submarines and two nuclear submarines.
Project 75 I-class submarine
It is follow-on of the Project 75 Kalvari-class submarine for the Indian navy. Under this project, the Indian Navy intends to acquire 6 diesel-electric submarines, which will also feature advanced Air Independent Propulsion (AIP) systems to enable them to stay submerged for longer duration and substantially increase their operational range. All six submarines are expected to be constructed in Indian shipyards.
QR-SAM
QR-SAM stands for quick reaction surface-to-air short range missile
Developed by DRDO
It has been designed to be a quick reaction missile.
It is an all-weather weapon system capable of tracking and firing.
The missile has a strike range of 25 to 30 km and can engage multiple targets.
QR-SAM will complement the existing Akash short range SAM (surface-to-air missile) with a range of 25
kilometres which has already been inducted into the services.
Rustom-II
It is an indigenously developed drone
It is a Medium Altitude Long Endurance (MALE) UAV
It is multi-mission UAV which can conduct Intelligence, surveillance and reconnaissance missions for the armed
forces.
It can also be used as an unmanned armed combat.
It can fly up to an altitude of 22,000 feet and has endurance of over 20 hours.
It is capable of carrying payloads for electronic and signal intelligence missions.
It can fly at around 280 km/h.
Rustom 2 can fly missions on manual as well as autonomous modes.
Its data link developed by Defence Electronics Application Laboratory (DEAL) transmits the ISR data to the
armed forces’ ground control station in real time allowing prompt action.
Sarmat ICBMs
It is Russia’s under development ICBM.
The RS-28 Sarmat is a heavy liquid-propellant ICBM capable of carrying nuclear charges.
This missile is under development in Russia since 2000s.
The name Sarmat is based upon the nomadic Sarmatian tribes which used to live between 6th and 4th century BC
in current territories of Russia, Ukraine and Kazakhstan
Tejas - Light Combat Aircraft
Made in India
Single-seat
Single-jet engine,
Multi-role light fighter
It has been pegged as world’s smallest and lightest supersonic fighter
LCA Tejas is not the first indigenous fighter to be inducted into the IAF. In April 1967, IAF had formed the first
operational squadron with the indigenous HF-24 Marut fighter.
Designed by the Aeronautical Development Agency (ADA) and Hindustan Aeronautics Limited (HAL).
Made under Light Combat Aircraft (LCA) programme, which began in the 1980s to replace India’s ageing MiG-
21 fighters
Why in news? Defence ministry announced that it will replace MiG-21 now.
USS Gerald R Ford
It is world’s largest nuclear-powered aircraft carrier built by USA.
The ship is named after the 38th President of the US Gerald Ford to pay tribute to his lifetime of service to the
nation in the US Navy and the US government.
USS Gerald R Ford size is equivalent to size of about three football fields.
It has two nuclear reactors on board that can operate for up to 20 years without refuelling.
It has electromagnetic Aircraft Launch System (EMALS), replacing the steam system used on earlier carriers
and new electric motor-based Advanced Arresting Gear (AAG) system for faster and more efficient aircraft takeoffs and landings.
Energy and Environment
Bharat Stage Norms
Bharat stage norms are emission standards instituted by Government to regulate output of air pollutants from
internal combustion engine equipment, including motor vehicles.
The standards and timeline for implementation are set by Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB) under
Ministry of Environment & Forests and climate change.
The standards are based on European regulations and were first introduced in 2000.
Since then, various stages Bharat Stage compatible fuel and ungraded and modified vehicles were introduced
throughout the country.
The harmful emissions that are identified for regulations in different Bharat Stages (BS) are carbon monoxide
(CO), unburnt hydrocarbons (HC), Nitrogen Oxides (NOx) and Particulate matter (PM).
Each stage specifies a certain limit on the pollutants released, Higher the Bharat Stage goes lesser it emits
pollutants. BS-I, BS-II and BS-III stages were launched in 2000, 2005 and 2010 respectively.
BS VI Norms
The BS-IV compliant fuels have Sulphur concentration of 50 parts per million (ppm).
It will come down to 10 ppm in BS-VI compliant fuels and auto engines.
It will result in lower level of harmful emissions and reduced incidence of lung diseases.
Moreover, switch to BS-VI norms will also reduce concentration of carbon monoxide (CO), unburnt
hydrocarbons, nitrous oxide (NOx) and particulate matter from emissions.
Bio-CNG
Bio-CNG is a purified form of biogas with over 95% pure methane gas
It is similar to natural gas in its composition (97% methane) and energy potential
While natural gas is a fossil fuel, bio-CNG is a renewable form of energy produced from agricultural and food
waste
A typical bio-CNG station comprises a biogas purification unit, a compressor, and a high-pressure storage
system
Bio-CNG is being looked at as an environment-friendly alternative to diesel
Why in news? Government planning to open Bio-CNG plants
Biomethane
Biomethane is a naturally occurring gas
It is produced by anaerobic digestion of organic matter such as dead animal and plant material, manure,
sewage, organic waste, etc.
This gas is produced out of natural degradation process and escapes into the atmosphere unused.
If it is trapped and used in automobile engines, it reduces the net impact on environment and at the same time
produces useful power.
Biofuels
Biofuel is defined as any fuel whose energy is obtained through process of biological carbon fixation. It can be
characterized on basis of their source biomass.
Generations of Biofuels
1G Biofuel: They produced directly from food crops such as wheat and sugar etc.
2G Biofuel: They are produced from marginal croplands unsuitable for food production or non-food crops. For
example-Jatropha. It overcomes over food vs. fuel debate in first generation biofuel.
3G Biofuels: It is based on improvements on production of biomass by taking advantage of specially
engineered energy crops such as algae as its energy source.
These engineered energy crops can be cultured to act as low-cost, high-energy and entirely renewable feedstock.
They have potential to produce more energy per acre than conventional crops.
Coal Bed Methane (CBM)
Basics:
CBM is generic term used for gas that is found in adsorbed state in coal.
CBM is natural gas found in coal seams.
It mainly consists of Methane (CH4) with minor amounts of nitrogen (N2), carbon dioxide (CO2) and heavier
hydrocarbons like ethane (C2H6).
It is a clean source of energy.
During the initial years of mining, CBM was vented out and wasted into the atmosphere as it was considered as
serious safety hazard while conducting coal mining operations.
However, later with advancement of technology it was possible to extract CBM, a precious energy resource and
an unconventional form of natural gas.
Advantage of CBM:
It is environmentally safe and clean fuel which on combustion emits only carbon dioxide and water.
It is not only considered as an efficient fuel but also reduces emission of greenhouse gas from coal mining.
Its extraction prior to coal mining activities makes mining activities safer by degassing the coal seams.
Why in news?
CCEA has relaxed rules for state-owned Coal India Ltd (CIL) for extraction of Coal Bed Methane (CBM) lying below
coal seams in its blocks in bid to quickly boost production. Till now, CIL had to apply to oil ministry for a licence to
extract coal-bed methane (CBM) from its coal blocks.
CO2 injection technology
CO2 injection technology is a proven concept in the West specially the US and Canada which increases oil
extraction from ageing oil fields.
Under it, CO2 gas is injected with residual oil in the ageing field in which total oil production has been declining.
It reduces its viscosity and makes it easier to displace oil from the rock pores.
CO2 gas also swells oil, thereby pushing it towards the producing well for extraction.
Why in news? ONGC is introducing it in Gandhar Oil field, Gujarat
Flammable ice
Flammable ice is also known as methane hydrate or methane clathrates.
It consists of methane trapped within water crystals.
It is the world’s largest natural gas resource which is trapped beneath permafrost and ocean sediment where low
temperature and moderate pressure combine to trap methane in this specific way.
The methane hydrate is highly flammable and energy-intensive fuel as one cubic metre of the compound can
releases about 160 cubic metres of gas.
It can break down into water and methane after temperature is raised or pressure is lowered.
It is likely to be the world’s last great source of carbon-based fuel and has potential to be a revolutionary energy
source that could cater future energy needs.
Its vast deposits exist underneath all oceans around the globe, especially on the edge of continental shelves.
Fracking
Fracking is a term used for hydraulic fracturing, which is the process of creating fractures in rocks and rock
formations by injecting specialized fluid into cracks to force them to open further. The larger fissures allow more
oil and gas to flow out of the formations and into the wellbore, from where they can be easily extracted.
Fracking has resulted in many oil and gas wells attaining a state of economic viability due to the level of
extraction that can be reached, and has allowed drilling firms access to previously difficult-to-reach sources of
oil and gas.
Guar seed
Guar gum is extracted from guar seed which is used by drilling companies to thicken water mixed with sand and
pumped through shale rock cracks to extract gas.
It is also used as thickening agent in products such as ice cream, bread, pasta, sausages and pastries.
North American oil and gas industry are mostly uses guar gum from India.
Increase in crude oil prices creates demand for guar in North America’s shale gas industry.
Rajasthan, Haryana and parts of Gujarat are major guar producers in the country.
Heavy Water
It is also known as deuterium oxide (D2O).
It is form of water that contains large amount of hydrogen isotope deuterium (heavy hydrogen).
Deuterium differs from hydrogen which is usually found in water.
Heavy water may be deuterium protium oxide (DHO) or deuterium oxide (D2O).
The presence of deuterium increase mass of water and gives different chemical and physical property compared
to normal water.
Heavy water is used in certain types of nuclear reactors, where it acts as a neutron moderator to slow down
neutrons.
It also used in nuclear magnetic resonance, organic chemistry, fourier transform spectroscopy, neutron
moderator, neutrino detector, tritium production and metabolic rate testing in physiology and biology.
Light Pollution
What is Light Pollution?
Light pollution is artificial brightening of the night sky caused by man-made lightening sources, which has a disruptive
effect on natural cycles and inhibits the observation of stars and planets. It is also known as photo pollution or
luminous pollution and basically is the misdirected or obtrusive of natural light by excessive artificial light. More than
80% of humanity lives under skies saturated with artificial light.
Components of light pollution
Glare: excessive brightness that causes visual discomfort.
Skyglow: brightening of the night sky over inhabited areas.
Clutter: bright, excessive and confusing groupings of light sources.
Light trespass: light falling where it is not intended or needed.
Effects of Light Pollution
Disturbs the reproductive cycles of some animals.
Disturbs migration of birds that navigate using the stars and to disorient night-flying insects.
In humans, it disturbs circadian rhythms that regulate hormones and other bodily functions.
Excessive blue light emitted form LEDs directly affects sleep pattern in Human by suppressing the production of
the hormone melatonin, which mediates the sleep-wake cycle in humans.
Macrophytes
What are Macrophytes?
A macrophyte is an aquatic plant that grows in or near water and is either emergent, submergent, or floating,
and includes helophytes (a plant that grows in marsh, partly submerged in water, so that it regrows from buds
below the water surface).
In lakes and rivers macrophytes provide cover for fish and substrate for aquatic invertebrates, produce oxygen,
and act as food for some fish and wildlife.
Role of Macrophytes
A decline in a macrophyte community may indicate water quality problems and changes in the ecological status
of the water body.
Such problems may be the result of excessive turbidity, herbicides, or salinization.
Conversely, overly high nutrient levels may create an overabundance of macrophytes, which may in turn
interfere with lake processing.
What are the functions in ecology?
Macrophytes perform many ecosystem functions in aquatic ecosystems and provide services to human society.
One of the important functions performed by macrophyte is uptake of dissolve nutrients (N and P) from water.
Macrophytes are widely used in constructed wetlands around the world to remove excess N and P from polluted
water.
Beside direct nutrient uptake, macrophytes indirectly influence nutrient cycling, especially N cycling through
influencing the denitrifying bacterial functional groups that are inhabiting on roots and shoots of macrophytes.
Macrophytes promote the sedimentation of suspended solids by reducing the current velocities, impede erosion
by stabilising soil surfaces.
Macrophytes also provide spatial heterogeneity in otherwise unstructured water column.
Habitat complexity provided by macrophytes like to increase the richness of taxonomy and density of both fish
and invertebrates.
Mercury Pollution
Mercury pollution
Mercury is global and ubiquitous metal that occurs naturally and has broad uses in everyday objects.
It is released to the atmosphere, soil and water from a variety of sources such as burning coal for power plants,
waste from industrial and medical products like batteries, measuring devices, such as thermometers and
barometers, etc, extraction of minerals (smelting of gold), electric switches and relays in equipment, lamps
(including some types of light bulbs) etc.
Harmful effects
According to WHO, Mercury is considered as one of top ten hazardous chemicals of major public health concern.
Once released into environment, mercury bio-accumulates and bio-magnifies in food chain and easily enters
human body.
It has toxic effects on nervous, digestive and immune systems and on lungs, kidneys, skin and eyes.
Exposure to even small amount of mercury may cause serious health problems.
It is threat to the development of child in utero and early in life. It may also cause skin rashes and dermatitis.
Note: Mercury is the only metallic element that is liquid at standard conditions for temperature and pressure.
Petroleum Coke
Petroleum coke, also called pet coke or petcoke, is a solid carbon material that resembles coal.
Petroleum coke is a by-product of the oil refining process.
As refineries worldwide seek to operate more efficiently and extract more gasoline and other high value fuels
from each barrel of crude oil, a solid carbon material known as petcoke is produced.
Petroleum coke or Pet Coke is used by industries as fuel and contains various dangerous chemicals and heavy
metals such as Chromium, Vanadium, etc
Pet coke also has high Sulphur contents which on burning releases large amounts of Sulphates into the
atmosphere
These harmful chemicals cause air pollution and lead to various health risks
Why in news? The Supreme Court directed the prohibition of industrial use of pet coke and furnace oil in
NCR regions from November 1, 2017.
Photovoltaic road
France and China have developed Photovoltaic roads
Photovoltaic highway is constructed using solar panels which have thin sheet of transparent concrete on top of
them, protecting the surface.
It has wireless charging systems for electric vehicles (EVs).
The photovoltaic panels of the highway are built to transfer energy to electric vehicles passing on top of them.
The road has three layers viz. bottom layer which is insulator to prevent moisture from getting to photovoltaic
devices in middle layer, and top layer has transparent concrete.
PM Urja Ganga Project
Project: It is 2,655 km long gas pipeline project originating at Jagdishpur (Uttar Pradesh).
The main trunk of pipeline ends to Haldia (West Bengal) and Dhamra (Odisha). The pipeline passes
through Uttar Pradesh, Bihar, Jharkhand, West Bengal and Odisha.
The project is being implemented by state-run gas utility GAIL
Significance:
The project is considered as a major step towards collective growth and development of the Eastern region of
India.
It will provide clean energy to households and transportation in the cities en-route the pipeline.
It will usher Industrial development in East India by supplying environmentally clean natural gas to fertiliser
and power plant, refineries, steel plants and other industries. Seven big east India cities viz. Varanasi,
Jamshedpur, Patna, Ranchi, Kolkata, Bhubaneswar, Cuttack – will be the major beneficiary of this project.
Roll-Out Solar Array, or ROSA
ROSA is an advanced, flexible solar array that rolls out like a tape.
The ROSA is very much flexible so that it can be adapted to different sizes including very large arrays.
ROSA is expected to provide power for a variety of future spacecraft and satellites.
ROSA is smaller and lighter than the traditional panels and has a centre wing build of a flexible material
containing photovoltaic cells to convert light into electricity.
ROSA with significantly less mass and volume can offer substantial cost savings and increase the power for
satellites.
Why in news? It is being tested on International Space Station.
Health
Arsenic Contamination
Arsenic is a natural component in the earth’s crust.
It is widely distributed throughout the environment in the air, water and land.
It is highly toxic in its inorganic form.
Contaminated water used for drinking, irrigation of food crops and food preparation poses the greatest threat to
public health from arsenic.
Long-term exposure to arsenic from drinking-water and food can lead to chronic arsenic poisoning.
It can cause cancer, skin lesions, developmental effects, cardiovascular disease, neurotoxicity and diabetes.
The most important action in affected communities is the prevention of further exposure to arsenic by providing
them of a safe water supply.
It is a high-profile problem in the Ganges Delta, due to the use of deep tubewells for water supply.
The groundwater in these tubewells have high concentrations of arsenic in deeper levels.
CARB X
CARB-X is a public-private international partnership set up in 2016 to focus on innovations to improve
diagnosis and treatment of drug-resistant infections.
It had grown out of US President Barack Obama’s 2015 Combating Antibiotic Resistant Bacteria (CARB)
initiative.
It is funded by London-based biomedical research charity Wellcome Trust and US Health Department’s
Biomedical Advanced Research and Development Authority (BARDA).
The purpose of CARB X is to provide a new, collaborative approach to speed R&D and delivery of new
antibiotics, vaccines, diagnostics, and other innovative products to address urgent global problem of drugresistant bacterial infections. It will provide grants up to $455 million over a five-year period to firms across globe for antibiotics R&D.
All of its funding so far is focused on projects to address most resistant “Gram-negative” bacteria.
Gram-negative Bacteria:
Bacteria are classified as Gram-positive and Gram-negative, based on a structural difference in their cell walls. Gramnegative bacteria are responsible for 20-25% of bacterial infections and are multi drug resistant i.e. have ability to
defend themselves against drugs that try to kill them.
Chikungunya
Chikungunya is a mosquito-borne virus that causes a disease.
It is transmitted by Aedes aegypti and Aedes albopictus mosquitoes.
Its symptoms are characterised by abrupt fever and severe joint pain, often in hands and feet, and may include
headache, muscle pain, joint swelling or rash.
There is no specific antiviral drug treatment for chikungunya.
There is no commercial chikungunya vaccine.
Chikungunya treatment is directed primarily at relieving the symptoms, including the joint pain using antipyretics, optimal analgesics and fluids.
Clubfoot
It is one of the most common orthopaedic birth defects where one or both feet are rotated inwards and
downwards.
It describes range of foot abnormalities usually present at birth in which your baby’s foot is twisted out of shape
or position.
In clubfoot, tissues connecting muscles to the bone (tendons) are shorter than usual.
Causes: They are unknown (idiopathic), but it may be combination of genetics and environment.
Symptoms of Clubfoot:
o Top of the foot is usually twisted downward and inward, increasing arch and turning heel inward.
o The foot may be turned so severely that it actually looks as if it’s upside down.
o The affected foot may be up to 1/2 inch (about 1cm) shorter than other foot. The calf muscles in affected
leg are usually underdeveloped.
Threats:
o It causes foot deformity, abnormality walking, callus, knock knees, or shortened legs.
o It can cause permanent disability if not treated early.
o This affects the child’s mobility and confidence.
o It occurs in about one in 1,000 newborns.
o In India, burden of disability affects more than 10 million people.
Treatment:
o Ponseti method is initially used which involves moving foot into an improved position followed by casting,
which is repeated at weekly intervals.
o Once the inward bending is improved, the Achilles tendon is often cut and braces are worn until age of
four.
o Initially brace is worn nearly continuously and then just at night.
o In about 20% of cases further surgery is required.
Congenital Adrenal Hyperplasia (CAH)
CAH is an inherited disorder that affects the adrenal glands where the glands cannot produce cortisol and
aldosterone, and instead produce an unwanted excess amount of androgens.
A child with CAH lacks enzymes the adrenal glands use to produce hormones that help regulate metabolism, the
immune system, blood pressure, and other essential functions.
Parents with children suffering from it often have great difficulty in the upbringing of the child, including
treatment, getting school admission and other support issues.
Diabetes
o Diabetes is a chronic, progressive non-communicable disease (NCD) characterized by elevated levels of blood
sugar (blood glucose).
o It occurs when
1. the pancreas does not produce enough of the insulin hormone, which regulates blood sugar.
2. the body cannot effectively use the insulin it produces.
o Type 1 diabetes occurs when the body doesn’t make enough insulin
o Type 2 diabetes occurs when the body doesn’t make or use insulin very well, causing glucose to remain in the
blood, which can lead to serious problems.
o Insulin convert carbohydrate into sugar (glucose).
o Diabetic drug insulin is on essential medicine list by WHO.
o India has 69 million people with diabetes, second largest after China.
o Ayush-82: Ayurvedic medicine for diabetes.
Ebola
Ebola virus disease (EVD) is a severe, often fatal illness in humans.
It is a viral haemorrhagic fever of humans and other primates caused by ebola viruses.
It was first identified in 1976 in the Democratic Republic of Congo in a village near the Ebola River, from which
it takes its name.
It is transmitted to people from wild animals and spreads in the human population through human-tohuman transmission.
Fruit bats are natural host of this virus.
It spreads through contact with body fluids of inflected persons such as blood, urine and saliva.
It also spreads through sexual transmission.
Symptoms faced by people who have contracted the Ebola virus include high fever, bleeding and central nervous
system damage.
The average EVD case fatality rate is around 50%. However, in past outbreaks case fatality rates have varied
from 25% to 90%.
In 2014, Ebola virus had erupted periodically mainly across west and east Africa mainly in Guinea, Liberia and
Sierra Leone.
Treatment: There is as yet no proven treatment available for EVD. However, a range of potential treatments
including immune therapies, blood products and drug therapies are currently being evaluated.
Hepatitis
Hepatitis is a medical condition in which there occurs inflammation of liver cells and its complications vary with
type of infection.
There are 5 types of hepatitis viz. A, B, C, D and E. Each type is caused by a different hepatitis virus.
Hepatitis viruses is one of the common cause of liver damage
Hepatitis B and C are the most deadly. These two types are mostly responsible for liver damage.
Hepatitis viruses B, C and D spread by contact with contaminated blood or body fluids.
Hepatitis A and E spreads through unsafe food and drink.
Symptoms include yellowing of the skin and eyes, abdominal pain and swelling, yellow urine, pale or dark
stools, chronic fatigue, nausea and loss of appetite.
Why in news? WHO has appointed Amitabh Bachchan as its goodwill Ambassador for Hepatitis in South East
Asia Region
Hepatitis C
Hepatitis C is infectious disease caused by blood-borne virus hepatitis C virus (HCV) that primarily affects the
liver.
Significant number of people infected with Hepatitis C develop cirrhosis of liver or liver cancer, which are
responsible for 3,99,000 Hepatitis C deaths annually across the world.
About 1.2 crore people in India are reported to be suffering from Hepatitis C— six times the number of
HIV/AIDS patients.
Hepatitis C can spread through use of injectable drugs, unsafe health care, unsafe injection practises and
transfusion of unscreened blood and blood products.
However, unlike Hepatitis B, it is not sexually transmitted.
There is no known vaccine for Hepatitis C.
Interstitium
It is a new organ discovered in human body.
The new organ is network of interconnected, fluid-filled spaces all over the body.
It is found everywhere in human bodies, acting as shock absorber in all places where tissues are moved or
subjected to force.
It is made up of both flexible (elastin) and strong (collagen) connective tissue proteins, with interstitial fluid
moving throughout.
It lies beneath top layer of skin, but is also in tissue layers lining gut, lungs, blood vessels, and muscles.
The organ acts like shock absorber in all places where tissues are moved or subjected to force to protect them
from damage.
Functions:
o The new organ’s interstitial spaces are organized by collagen mesh which allows it to shrink, expand
making it as shock absorbers.
o It also acts as fluid ‘highway’ i.e. thoroughfares to transport critical fluids within organs and around body.
o It also plays important role in carrying lymph, a fluid that supports immunity and also travels through
lymphatic vessels.
Japanese Encephalitis
What is Japanese Encephalitis?
Japanese encephalitis (JE) is a mosquito-borne flavivirus.
It belongs to the same genus as dengue, yellow fever and West Nile viruses.
The first case of JE was documented in 1871 in Japan.
Target:
JE primarily affects children.
Most adults in endemic countries have natural immunity after childhood infection, but individuals of any age
may be affected.
Transmission:
It is transmitted by rice field breeding mosquitoes (primarily Culex tritaeniorhynchus group).
The mosquitoes transmit JE by feeding on domestic pigs and wild birds infected with the Japanese encephalitis
virus (JEV).
It is not transmitted from person-to-person.
Disease outbreaks:
Major JE outbreaks occur every 2-15 years.
JE transmission mainly intensifies during the rainy season, during which vector populations increase.
Signs and symptoms:
Most JE infections are mild (fever and headache) or without apparent symptoms, but it may result in severe
clinical illness.
Severe infection is marked by quick onset, headache, high fever, neck stiffness, disorientation, stupor, occasional
convulsions (especially in infants) etc.
Treatment: There is no specific therapy. Intensive supportive therapy is indicated
Kala-azar
Kala-azar is also known as black fever and Dumdum fever
It is most severe form of leishmaniasis.
It is zoonotic (or parasatic) infection transmitted by sand fly (Leishmania donovani), a blood-sucking pest,
which is one-third size of mosquitoes and found in moist (humid) mud and sand and in close proximity to
livestock.
Its signs and symptoms include fever, weight loss, fatigue, anaemia, and substantial swelling of liver and spleen.
It is treatable and requires a medical diagnosis.
If untreated, kala-azar can kill within two years of onset of ailment.
Kala-azar belongs to Neglected Tropical Disease (NTD) family of diseases which affect poorest populations.
It is second-largest parasitic killer in world after Malaria.
It is endemic to Indian subcontinent in 119 districts in four countries (Bangladesh, Bhutan, India and
Nepal).
India accounts for half the global burden of Kala-azar disease.
Leprosy
Leprosy, also known as Hansen’s disease (HD), is a long-term infection by the bacterium Mycobacterium
leprae or Mycobacterium lepromatosis.
Initially, infections are without symptoms and typically remain this way for 5 to 20 years.
Symptoms that develop include granulomas of the nerves, respiratory tract, skin, and eyes. This may result in a
lack of ability to feel pain, thus loss of parts of extremities due to repeated injuries or infection due to unnoticed
wounds. Weakness and poor eyesight may also be present.
Leprosy spread between people. This is thought to occur through a cough or contact with fluid from the nose
of an infected person. Leprosy occurs more commonly among those living in poverty. Contrary to popular belief,
it is not highly contagious.
Leprosy is curable with a treatment known as multidrug therapy. The treatments are provided free of charge by
the World Health Organization.
Malaria
Malaria is a vector borne disease caused by parasitic protozoans belonging to the Plasmodium type.
It is most commonly transmitted by an infected female Anopheles mosquito.
According to the World Malaria Report 2016, India accounts for 89% of the incidence of malaria in the SouthEast Asia region.
In India, malaria is caused by the parasites Plasmodium falciparum (Pf), found more in the forest areas and
Plasmodium Vivax (Pv), more common in the plains.
Most malaria cases are mainly concentrated in tribal and remote areas of the country.
The majority of malaria reporting districts are in India’s eastern and central parts.
Why important? Government has launched National Strategic Plan for Malaria Elimination.
Maturity Onset Diabetes of the Young (MODY)
MODY is a rare form of diabetes which is different from both Type 1 and Type 2 diabetes, and runs strongly in
families.
MODY is caused by a mutation (or change) in a single gene. If a parent has this gene mutation, any
child they have, has a 50 per cent chance of inheriting it from them.
If a child does inherit the mutation they will generally go on to develop MODY before they’re 25, whatever their
weight, lifestyle, ethnic group etc.
Cause : Diabetes involves a disruption of how blood sugar is kept in check by the hormone insulin. In Type-2
diabetes, which is the most common form of the disorder, many genes and environmental factors combine to
cause this disruption. In MODY, any one of the 14 genes, if defective, can hamper the body’s insulin usage and
trigger Type-2 diabetes.
Measles-Rubella Disease
The disease is commonly known as German Measles (or three-day measles) and is symptomatically similar to
measles.
It can have devastating consequences if a pregnant mother is infected with it and the foetus may be born with
incurable congenital anomalies.
Symptoms of the infection can include cataracts and deafness.
It can also affect the heart and the brain.
The congenital rubella infection is believed to affect approximately 25,000 children born in India every year.
Measles vaccine is currently provided under Universal Immunization Programme (UIP). However, rubella
vaccine will be a new addition to it.
What is Measles?
Measles is a deadly disease and one of the important causes of death in children. It is highly contagious and spreads
through coughing and sneezing of an infected person. It can make a child vulnerable to life threatening complications
such as diarrhoea, pneumonia and brain infection.
What is Rubella?
Rubella is generally a mild infection, but has serious consequences if infection occurs in pregnant women, causing
CRS, which is a cause of public health concern. CRS is characterized by congenital anomalies in the foetus and new
borns affecting the eyes (cataract, glaucoma), ears (hearing loss), brain (mental retardation, microcephaly) and heart
defects, causing a huge socio-economic burden on the families in particular and society in general.
Why in news?
The Union Ministry of Health and Family Welfare has launched the second phase of measles-rubella (MR) vaccination
campaign to reduce measles morbidity and mortality.
Monkey Fever
Kyasanur forest disease or monkey fever is tick-borne viral diseases caused by Kyasanur forest disease virus
(KFDV), a member of the virus family Flaviviridae, which also causes dengue and yellow fever.
It is endemic to South Asia and was first detected in 1957 in Kyasanur Forest of Karnataka.
Monkey fever is so named because it primarily affects black-faced langurs and red-faced bonnet monkeys and
result in their death.
KFD causes seasonal outbreaks between December and May along Western Ghats mostly striking farmers in
Goa, Karnataka, Kerala, Tamil Nadu and Maharashtra.
Transmission: The vector responsible for its transmission is ticks (Hemaphysalis spinigera). These ticks are
known to thrive in the Western Ghats and transmit the disease to humans. Humans contract KFD infection from
the bite of nymphs of the tick.
Symptoms: High fever with headache, followed by haemorrhagic symptoms such as bleeding from nose, throat
and gums. It also causes gastrointestinal bleeding, muscle stiffness, tremors, absent reflexes and mental
disturbances.
Prevention: Its spread can be prevented through vaccination. Moreover, additional preventative measures
include using insect repellents and wearing protective clothes in areas where ticks are endemic
Monocrotophos
Monocrotophos is a toxic pesticide recently in news due to deaths in TN
The internationally banned pesticide, which is known to make plants look green and healthy, was also linked to
the death of 23 school children in Bihar in 2013.
Monocrotophos is one of the oldest pesticides still in use, and although it is known to be toxic, it is not alone.
There are two kinds of toxic pesticides: acute ones which cause immediate effect, and chronic pesticides which
have a built-up effect over a long period of time.
Monocrotophos is an highly acutely toxic. But somehow, it is still used for non-food products.
The World Health Organisation has placed monocrotophos in Class 1b — a category reserved for highly
hazardous pesticides.
The substance was banned in 2005 in India for use on vegetables. Currently, monocrotophos is mostly used to
grow cotton.
Monocrotophos can be absorbed into the human body through multiple pathways, including inhalation, skin
contact and ingestion, and is acutely toxic by all routes of exposure.
The first two modes of exposure put Indian farmers at an unusually high risk.
Farmers here mostly work without any protective equipment, and this puts them at risk of pesticide uptake by
inhalation and absorption through the skin
Oxytocin
What is Oxytocin?
It is a female hormone
It has also been dubbed the love hormone, hug hormone, cuddle chemical, moral molecule, and the bliss
hormone due to its effects on behavior, including its role in love and in female reproductive biological functions
in reproduction.
Oxytocin is a hormone that is made in the brain, in the hypothalamus. It is transported to, and secreted by,
the pituitary gland, which is located at the base of the brain.
It acts both as a hormone and as a brain neurotransmitter.
The release of oxytocin by the pituitary gland acts to regulate two female reproductive functions: Childbirth
and Breast-feeding.
Why its sale is being limited?
The drug is used by diary owners and farmers to boost milk production and make vegetables look bigger and fresher.
But, it was found that indiscriminate use of Oxytocin in milch animals and by farmers was causing irreversible
hormone damage.
Why in news?
The Union government has banned imports of hormone oxytocin to stop its misuse in livestock industry, where it
causes hormonal imbalances and shortens the lives of milch animals.
Polio
Poliomyelitis (polio) is a highly infectious viral disease, which mainly affects young children below age of 5.
The virus is transmitted from person-to-person.
It mainly spreads through the faecal-oral route (e.g. contaminated water or food).
After entering body, it multiplies in the intestine, from where it can invade the nervous system and can cause
paralysis.
Its initial symptoms include fever, fatigue, headache, vomiting, stiffness in the neck, and pain in the limbs.
In some cases, it causes permanent paralysis.
There is no cure for polio, however it can only be prevented by immunization.
Polio vaccine is given multiple times, almost always protects a child for life.
Swine Flu
Swine influenza, also called pig influenza, swine flu, hog flu and pig flu, is an infection caused by any one of
several types of swine influenza viruses. Swine influenza virus (SIV) or swine-origin influenza virus (S-OIV) is
any strain of the influenza family of viruses that is endemic in pigs.
Influenza A (H1N1) virus is the subtype of influenza A virus that is the most common cause of h
influenza.
It is an orthomyxovirus that contains the glycoproteins haemagglutinin and neuraminidase. For this reason,
they are described as H1N1, H1N2 etc. depending on the type of H or N antigens they express with metabolic
synergy. Haemagglutinin causes red blood cells to clump together and binds the virus to the infected
cell. Neuraminidase is a type of glycoside hydrolase enzyme which helps to move the virus particles through
the infected cell and assist in budding from the host cells.
Some strains of H1N1 are endemic in humans and cause a small fraction of all influenza
fraction of all seasonal influenza. Other strains of H1N1 are endemic in pigs (swine influenza) and in birds (avian
influenza).
Trachoma
Trachoma is a chronic infective disease of eye and is leading cause of infective blindness globally.
It is outcome of poor environmental and personal hygiene and inadequate access to water and sanitation.
It affects conjunctiva under the eyelids.
Repeated Trachoma infection causes scarring leading to in
causes damage to cornea and blindness.
It is main cause of corneal blindness in India, affecting young children.
It was found affecting the population North
Pradesh.
Why in news? India is announced Trachoma free.
Typhoid
Typhoid fever is caused by bacterium Salmonella Typhi (S. Typhi)
It infects humans due to contaminated food and beverages from sewage and other infected humans.
Its symptoms include fever, fatigue, headache, abdominal pain, and diarrhoea or constipation.
Typbar Typhoid Conjugate Vaccine (TVC)
It is a Typhoid Vaccine developed by Hyderabad based Bharat Biotech
WHO has given its approval for global use of this vaccine.
Typbar TCV is world’s first typhoid vaccine clinically proven to be administered to children from six months of
age to adults, and confers long-term protection against typhoid fever.
Unani system of medicine
Unani system of medicine is the term for Perso-Arabic traditional medicine as practiced in Mughal India and in
Muslim culture in South Asia and modern day Central Asia.
It had originated in Greece.
Hippocrates is known as the father of this system of medicine.
The term Yūnānī (Greek) means Perso-Arabic system of medicine.
It was introduced to India in 13th century with the establishment of Delhi Sultanate and it took its own course of
development during Mughal Empire after it was influenced by Indian medical teachings of Sushruta and
Charaka.
Zika Virus
Zika virus is vector borne disease transmitted primarily by daytime-active Aedes aegypti mosquitoes.
It is also found that, sexual transmission of Zika virus disease is possible.
This virus causes deadly fever and this is also linked to microcephaly
The virus is capable of causing serious birth defects i.e. neurological disorders and foetal deformation known as
Microcephaly in which infants are born with abnormally smaller heads.
Besides a possible link between the virus and Guillain-Barré syndrome (GBS: a condition in which the body’s
immune system attacks part of the nervous system) is also suspected.
India, China, Pakistan and Bangladesh are vulnerable to Zika virus because these countries receive large number
of travellers from effected countries.
Zika disease, since the 1950s has been known to occur within a narrow equatorial belt from Africa to Asia.
Zika virus is related to dengue, yellow fever, Japansese encephalitis and West Nile viruses. The illness it causes
is similar to a mild form of dengue fever, it is treated by rest, and cannot yet be prevented by drugs or vaccines.
There is a possible link between Zika fever and microcephaly (smaller head size) in new born babies by motherto-child transmission as well as a stronger one with neurologic conditions in infected adults, including cases of
the Guillain-Barre syndrome, a condition in which the immune system attacks the nervous system, sometimes
resulting in paralysis.
It attacks the nervous system and can lead to potentially fatal paralysis.
First discovered in Zika forest in Uganda.
Disease caused havoc in Latin American countries last year.
Treatment: There is no specific treatment or vaccine currently available to treat Zika. The best form of
prevention is protection against mosquito bites and clearing stagnant water where mosquitoes breed.
Why in news now?
o Government confirmed that 3 cases were found in Gujarat few months ago.
o First case of Zika found in TN.
