1464-71 Flashcards
Introduction:
Not giving any plot twists away, but this gets very complicated very quickly! By the end of 1465 the Lancastrian threat appeared dead: Margaret of Anjou and Prince Edward were exiles in France and Henry VI a prisoner in the Tower of London. So, how was it that in 1470 Henry VI regained the crown? It has nothing to do with Lancastrian resurgence, but a disastrous splintering apart of the Yorkist regime. This was driven by Edward IV’s questionable policies as king, his controversial marriage to Elizabeth Woodville and the ambitions of Richard Neville, earl of Warwick. These years of political turmoil ultimately being resolved by even more bloodshed and the murder of a king
1464 - 1st May
Edward secretly marries Elizabeth Grey (née Woodville)
1464 - August
Edward breaks the news that he is married to Elizabeth Woodville. Warwick has successfully been negotiating Edward’s marriage to Bona of Savoy, sister-in-law of Louis XI. The proposed marriage to Bona is a key part of the pro-French foreign policy that Warwick favours and has been tasked with pursuing
1464 - September
- Elizabeth is officially presented as Edward’s wife at Reading Abbey
- Safe conducts are issued for Burgundian envoys to visit England
1464 - October/November
Elizabeth Woodville’s sister, Margaret, is betrothed to Thomas, eldest son and heir of the earl of Arundel
1464 - December
Warwick requests that his eldest daughter, Isabel, should marry Clarence, Edward’s eldest brother (and at this point Edward’s heir). Warwick might also have suggested that his second daughter Anne should marry Richard (Edward’s youngest brother). Edward flatly rejects any such proposal
1465 - January
Elizabeth Woodville’s brother, John (aged 21), is betrothed to the dowager duchess of Norfolk, Katherine Neville, Warwick’s aunt (aged 65). Such an age difference is not abnormal, but the marriage of a man of such relatively lowly status to a duchess is seen as abnormal
1465 - February
Clarence is gifted a vast array of estates by Edward. Many of these have been confiscated from Lancastrians
1465 - 26th May
Elizabeth Woodville is crowned as Edward’s queen. Warwick and William Hastings are absent, being involved in trade talks in Burgundy
1465 - July
Warwick returns from France with a proposed agreement with Louis XI. This is not what Edward has instructed, nor is an agreement with Louis what he really wants
1465 - September
The wife of Charles, heir to the duchy of Burgundy, dies. This opens the way for negotiations over a marriage between Charles and Edward’s sister Margaret
1465 - 22nd September
George Neville, Warwick’s brother and since the summer of 1460 Edward’s chancellor, is enthroned as archbishop of York (he was previously bishop of Exeter)
1466 - January/February
Lord Rivers (Elizabeth’s father) is made an earl (Earl Rivers) and treasurer of England. This means he is in charge of the Exchequer
1466 - February
Elizabeth’s sister Katherine marries Henry Stafford, heir to the duke of Buckingham (a vast and prestigious title). Other marriages include Anne Woodville to the heir of the earl of Essex, and Eleanor Woodville to the heir of the earl of Kent
1466 - July
Clarence formally takes possession of his vast swathe of landed estates. The age of majority is 21; Clarence is still a few months short of his seventeenth birthday
1466 - September
Elizabeth’s sister Mary (aged 10) is betrothed to William Herbert, son of Lord Herbert, Edward’s principal baron and enforcer in Wales. The lordship of Dunster in Somerset is granted to Herbert’s son; it is a lordship that Warwick had wanted
1466 - October
Thomas Grey, Elizabeth Woodville’s eldest son from her first marriage, is betrothed to Anne Holland, only child and heir of the exiled Lancastrian baron Henry Holland, duke of Exeter. Warwick is furious. He had already arranged the marriage of Anne to his nephew George, the son of his brother John Neville, earl of Northumberland. Elizabeth effectively bought the marriage by paying Anne’s mother 4,000 marks to cancel the contract of marriage to George Neville
1467 - 8th June
George Neville is dismissed as chancellor. It appears Edward has become frustrated at the chancellor’s refusal to fully embrace a pro-Burgundian foreign policy. Warwick is in France negotiating with Louis when his brother is dismissed from office
1467 - 11th-15th June
The Great tournament is held at Smithfield (just outside London). It is the showpiece of an imminent treaty between England and Burgundy. The Burgundian champion is the Bastard of Burgundy, a glamourous, illegitimate son of Duke Philip of Burgundy. The English champion is Anthony Woodville (Lord Scales), the equally glamorous brother of Elizabeth Woodville. Edward ensures that the Bastard is not beaten, being desperate tie up the treaty with Burgundy
1467 - June
Death of Duke Philip of Burgundy. This is good news for Edward, as Philip had refused permission for his son Charles to marry Edward’s sister Margaret. The marriage - the centrepiece of the treaty - is now agreed
1467 - June/July
Warwick returns to England and is told of the deal with Burgundy and the agreed marriage. He is not happy, having spent so much effort negotiating with Louis. He is also annoyed at his brother’s dismissal as chancellor. The French realise Warwick has lost his influence over Edward. Warwick feels humiliated
1467 - December
Trade agreement signed with Burgundy. It greatly favours Burgundy rather than England
1468 - May
Edward sets out plans for a war against France. Parliament grants the generous taxation needed, but the war never happens
1468 - 3rd July
Edward’s sister, Margaret, marries Duke Charles of Burgundy. The ceremony is extraordinarily lavish and extravagant
1468 - July
Jasper Tudor (Lancastrian) lands in Wales and attempts to relieve the last surviving Lancastrian resistance, the garrison in Harlech Castle. William Herbert moves against Jasper Tudor, whose forces disperse. Harlech is eventually surrendered after years of stubborn resistance. Edward rewards Herbert by making him earl of Pembroke, a title previously held by Jasper
1468 - October
Despite his agreement with Edward, Duke Charles concludes a truce with Louis. Edward’s foreign policy is unravelling
1469 - April
’Robin of Redesdale’ rising in Yorkshire; John Neville easily suppresses the disorder. Followed by disorder in the East Riding of Yorkshire, led by ‘Robin of Holderness’, local grievances over taxes and fuelled by a loyalty for the Percys rather then Edward and the Nevilles. Again, John Neville moves against the rebels, fighting and defeating them at the gates of York; ‘Holderness’ is captured and beheaded
1469 - July
The ‘Robin of Redesdale’ disorder flares again. Edward is on pilgrimage (a journey) in East Anglia. He moves to Newark and hears that the rising is growing in numbers. Concerned, he heads for the security of Nottingham Castle
With Edward preoccupied in the Midlands/North, Warwick, Clarence and George Neville slip across to Calais. Having previously obtained papal dispensation (permission from the pope), Clarence marries Warwick’s daughter Isabel. The ceremony is performed by George Neville
Warwick, Clarence and George Neville send an open letter - a proclamation - to England, mainly London and Kent. It accuses evil counsellors of influencing Edward and enriching themselves at the expense of the king, the kingdom and the commons (echoing the Yorkist proclamations of 1460). The evil counsellors are named, mostly being Woodvilles with Earl Rivers heading the list. It also includes William Herbert, Edward’s enforcer in Wales
1469 - 12th July
The rebel lords sail from Calais, land in Kent and enter London without meeting resistance. They move fast, determined to prevent the forces of Herbert (earl of Pembroke) and Humphrey Stafford (earl of Devon) linking up with Edward. Recognising the unpopularity of the Woodvilles, and for their own safety, Edward sends them away
1469 - 26th July
Battle of Edgecote (north of Banbury). Herbert engages ‘Redesdale’s’ rebel forces; he does so without Devon’s help as the two earls argued the previous evening and Devon’s troops have camped further away. Herbert is winning, but then an advance guard of Warwick’s troops appear. Believing Warwick’s entire army has arrived Herbert’s forces (mainly Welsh) break apart. Approximately 2,000 Welshmen are killed in the rout (retreat). Herbert is captured, taken to Northampton, tried by Warwick, Clarence and George Neville, sentenced to death and beheaded
1469 - July/August
Warwick and Clarence’s men hunt down their enemies. Lord Rivers and his second son John are tracked down in the Forest of Dean after fleeing from Herbert’s castle of Chepstow where they had taken refuge before Edgecote. They are brought to Coventry and executed. The earl of Devon is captured and executed. Anthony Woodville is captured in Norwich but manages to escape. Edward is captured by Warwick’s forces and taken to the earl’s stronghold, Middleham Castle in Yorkshire
Sinister propaganda surfaces: Elizabeth and her mother are accused of having seduced Edward into marrying Elizabeth by witchcraft; Warwick writes to Louis XI alleging that Edward is a bastard, that his father was not Richard, duke of York, but a Norman archer, and therefore the rightful king is not Edward but Clarence (who just happens to be married to Warwick’s daughter…)
1469 - August
Disorder wracks the kingdom. Warwick lacks any control as he is not the king, and nor is Clarence
1469 - September
Edward is freed by Warwick and resumes his kingship. No action is taken against Warwick or Clarence. Richard (aged 17) is, however, appointed constable of England: his staunch loyalty to Edward is in stark contrast to Clarence’s disloyalty
1469 - October:
Henry Percy (placed in the Tower of London by Warwick during the previous months) swears an oath of allegiance to Edward. Percy is released and given back the earldom of Northumberland. John Neville, created earl of Northumberland by Edward in 1464, and having been completely loyal to Edward and highly effective in the north, is compensated by being giving lands in the south west previously belonging to the earl of Devon, and is given the title marquess of Montagu. Moreover, his young son George is given the prestigious royal dukedom of Bedford and is betrothed to Edward’s daughter Elizabeth
1469 - December
Apparent reconciliation between Edward and Warwick, Clarence and George Neville
1470 - Jan/Feb
Popular disturbances in Lincolnshire. Edward gathers troops, Warwick heads to his Midland lands to raise more troops
1470 - March
News is received that the Lincolnshire (mid east) rebels are being joined by others from Yorkshire. They begin heading towards the East Midlands
1470 - 12th March
Battle of ‘Losecote Field’. Edward confronts the rebels near the village of Empingham (not far from Stamford). The rebels flee, the battle becoming known as ‘Losecote [Losecoat] Field’. The confessions of captured rebels implicate Warwick and Clarence as coordinating the disorder. Some of the rebels at ‘Losecote Field’ had bellowed the battle cry ‘Warwick’ and ‘Clarence’; some had worn Clarence’s colours
1470 - March (later)
Edward, supported by John Neville, pursues the rebel lords into Yorkshire. The rebel lords head north-west, but receiving no support from Lord Stanley in Lancashire they turn south and, with a price on their heads, make for the south coast
1470 - 9th April
Warwick, Clarence (with his wife Isabel) and George Neville take ship at Dartmouth and flee the country. Lord Wenlock refuses them entry into Calais (despite Warwick being Captain of Calais). Eventually they make landfall at Honfleur and seek the support of Louis XI, who is initially reluctant to help them fearing a war against both England and Burgundy
1470 - 24th July
Treaty of Angers. One of the most spectacular twists in the wars of the Roses; the unthinkable happens! Warwick submits to Margaret of Anjou. In a public ceremony in Angers Cathedral, before Margaret and her son Prince Edward (aged 16) he begs their forgiveness; Margaret keeps him waiting on his knees for fifteen minutes! Warwick swears loyalty to Henry VI, Margaret and Prince Edward. It is agreed that Warwick will put Henry VI back on the English throne. The treaty is sealed by the marriage of Prince Edward to Warwick’s second daughter Anne. If Prince Edward dies without an heir the throne will pass to Clarence and his descendants (Clarence loses out on his potential kingship in this deal - he’s not too happy). It is stipulated that Clarence will retain all the lands he had when he left England and the duchy of York (used to be Lancastrian lands). The treaty has been brokered by Louis XI who characteristically overcomes his earlier reluctance. There is a secret clause to the treaty: Warwick promises that when Louis declares war on Burgundy then England will do likewise
1470 - August
Disorder in northern England causes Edward to head north. Proclamations appear in London from Warwick and Clarence being addressed to the ‘true commons of England’ and detailing the misrule of Edward’s government
1470 - September
The rebel lords land at Dartmouth. They are accompanied by the Lancastrian earl of Oxford and by Jasper Tudor. Margaret and Prince Edward remain in France. Edward is declared a usurper and Henry VI proclaimed as the true king. The rebel lords recruit more troops (Warwick, Clarence and Oxford in the West Country; Tudor in Wales). There is an alarming lack of popular support for Edward. Many people do nothing and studiously avoid choosing a side
Edward bases himself Nottingham Castle with a handful of trusted lords including Richard and Anthony Woodville (now having inherited his father’s title of Earl Rivers; previously Anthony was Lord Scales). He’s desperately awaiting the arrival of John Neville who is bringing troops from the north. News arrives that Warwick and Clarence are rapidly approaching Nottingham; disastrously, John Neville has changed sides and joined them
1470 - 2nd October
Edward and his followers flee to Norfolk and take ship from the port of Lynn (King’s Lynn) and sail for Burgundy. Charles the Bold greets Edward cautiously; Lancastrian exiles such as Somerset are still at the Burgundian court. Charles fears supporting Edward could lead to a war against both France and Lancastrian England
1470 - 10th October
The Readeption of Henry VI. Having entered London, Warwick, Clarence, George Neville and Oxford take Henry VI from the Tower and have him crowned in St Paul’s Cathedral. Warwick is both ‘regent’ and ‘governor’ on behalf of Henry VI. George Neville resumes his role as chancellor
1470 - November/December
Louis XI declares war on Burgundy. Warwick is pressured into fulfilling the secret clause of the Treaty of Angers. This is a game-changer: Charles the Bold now throws the full support of Burgundy behind Edward’s bid to reclaim the throne. Charles loans Edward £20,000. Fourteen heavily armed Hanse ships agree to accompany Edward’s small invasion fleet. Money is raised in Bruges (Edward’s sister Margaret, the wife of Charles, proving influential). Charles instructs the Lancastrian exiles Somerset and Exeter to leave Burgundy
1471- January/February
Bad weather prevents Margaret of Anjou and Prince Edward sailing for England. Lancastrian England officially declares war on Burgundy
1471 - 11th March
Edward’s invasion fleet sails for England. The army is precariously small, scarcely 2,000 men. Among its leaders are Richard, William Hastings and Anthony Woodville. Arriving off the Norfolk coast near Cromer they are warned off, Oxford’s men dominating the area
1471 - 14th March
Edward lands at Ravenspur on the Yorkshire coast - northish east (curiously, the very place where Henry Bolingbroke landed in 1399 before he went on to claim the throne as Henry IV). Edward is not popular here. The carnage of Towton is still felt keenly, many locals having been killed fighting on the Lancastrian side; it is a region with strong Percy loyalties; it is currently controlled by the Nevilles
Edward makes for the city of York. He proclaims that he has not returned to regain the crown but simply to claim back his patrimony as duke of York. It is even claimed that he professed his loyalty to Henry VI in order to get into York: it works, the city reluctantly opening its gates
Edward’s position is precarious. Much depends on Henry Percy, earl of Northumberland, who commands the loyalty of the region. Percy does nothing to support Edward, but critically he does nothing to oppose Edward: he simply ‘sat still’
John Neville, based in Pontefract Castle, does not have enough troops to take to the field and oppose Edward without the support of Percy. He remains in the castle as Edward advances south into Nottinghamshire
Edward’s scouts report a Lancastrian force led by Oxford and Exeter occupies Newark (Notts). On his advance, however, the Lancastrians depart the town
Gradually Edward’s army begins to increase in number, most notably at Leicester when Hastings brings 3,000 troops recruited from his Midlands estates
Warwick is in Coventry. His forces quite possibly outnumber Edward’s. However, when Edward advances on Coventry and challenges Warwick to come out and negotiate or fight, Warwick refuses and remains in the walled town. Edward marches onwards
Warwick’s hesitancy might be influenced by Clarence, who is raising troops from his estates in the south-west. He sends a message urging Warwick not to attack Edward until he arrives with his troops. But Clarence is being disingenuous; he’s had a change of heart…
1471 - 3rd April
Edward’s army arrives at Banbury. Clarence approaches with 4,000 troops; the brothers ride out ahead of their troops, embrace each other and are reconciled. Clarence has changed sides, something Edward has been trying to achieve for several months
1471 - 11th April
Edward’s army enters London. George Neville hands Henry VI over to Edward. Previously, Neville had paraded Henry through the streets attempting to encourage support for the ailing king, but the pitiful sight emphasised just how weak and hopeless Henry was. Edward is reunited with Elizabeth (who had taken sanctuary in Westminster Abbey). She presents him with his first son, Edward, born during his brief exile. Edward IV is ceremonially crowned again
1471 - 14th April
Battle of Barnet. Warwick, Oxford and John Neville advance on London. They have a larger army than Edward. On the night of 13 April, Edward’s forces leave London and camp just outside Barnet. The next day, Easter Sunday, in a thick fog the two armies fight. It is Clarence and Richard’s first experience of battle. In a tightly fought, highly confused engagement, one in which Richard excels, Warwick’s army is routed (forced to retreat). John Neville is cut down and killed in the thick of the battle. Warwick, trying to escape through a wood, is taken by Clarence’s troops and killed
On the same evening Margaret and Prince Edward land at Weymouth (Dorset - south) where they are met by Somerset and John Courtenay, earl of Devon. They begin to raise troops in the West Country
1471 - 19th April
Edward’s forces muster at Windsor. Anthony Woodville and the earl of Essex (Henry Bourchier) are given the task of defending London, Edward fearing a Kentish rising supported by troops from the Warwick-loyalist Calais
It is not known if Margaret’s army is heading east for London and Kent or heading north, possibly towards Wales to link up with Jasper Tudor. Eventually it becomes clear the army is heading for Wales. Edward moves remarkably fast, needing to prevent the Lancastrians from crossing the River Severn into Wales. Denied entry to Gloucester, Margaret’s army makes for the next crossing point, Tewkesbury
1471 - 4th May
Battle of Tewkesbury. Edward’s army confronts Margaret’s Lancastrian army. Somerset’s courageous attack is repulsed, causing the Lancastrian army to collapse in on itself. The Lancastrian forces break apart. Many are cut down as they flee, many drown in the waters of a nearby mill race. Prince Edward is cut down and killed. Significant numbers of Lancastrians take refuge in Tewkesbury Abbey: blatantly ignoring the sanctuary afforded by this, they are dragged out and executed. Among them is Somerset
In the days following the battle Margaret of Anjou and Anne (Warwick’s second daughter, the widow of Prince Edward) are captured
1471 - 8th-21st May
The Bastard of Fauconberg attacks London. The ‘Bastard’ is Thomas Neville, Warwick’s cousin, the illegitimate son of William, Lord Fauconberg. Sailing off the English coast with a fleet from Calais, he lands in Kent, raises an insurgency and demands entry to London. When this is refused, he bombards the city from across the Thames, attacks London Bridge and tries to force entry through various city gates. The attacks are repulsed. A counter-attack led by Anthony Woodville finally breaks the Bastard’s forces; Fauconberg retreats back to his ships and sails for the English Channel. [The Bastard is eventually pardoned, Edward wanting the ships back and offering Fauconberg a pardon in return]
1471 - 21st May
Edward enters London. That evening Henry VI dies in the Tower of London. Officially, his death is down to ‘pure displeasure and melancholy’. Almost certainly he is murdered. The body is displayed at St Paul’s so ‘that he might be known’
