1.4 Qualitative Research Flashcards
What are the 6 methods to ensure credibility?
- triangulation
- establishing a rapport
- iterative questioning
- reflexivity
- credibility checks
- “thick descriptions”
What is triangulation?
combination of different approaches to collecting and interpreting data
What are the 4 types of triangulation?
- method
- data
- researcher
- theory
What does method triangulation consist of? Why is it useful?
use of different methods in combination compensates for their individual limitations and reinforce their strengths
How could method triangulation increase credibility?
If same results are obtained using different methods - increases credibility
What does data triangulation consist of?
refers to using data from a variety of accessible sources
How can data triangulation increase credibility?
Observations can be supported by studying documented biographical data
What does researcher triangulation consist of?
combining observations/interpretations of different researchers
How can researcher triangulation increase credibility?
If 2/more people see the same things, credibility is increased
What does theory triangulation consist of?
refers to using multiple perspectives or theories to interpret the data
In what 2 ways can a researcher establish a rapport?
researchers need to ensure that participants are being honest
Researchers need to clarify that study is voluntary and no right/wrong answers
Why is it useful to establish a rapport?
Overall, needed so that participants alter their behaviour as little as possible (and so that they feel comfortable sharing info on sensitive topics)
What does iterative questioning involve?
spotting ambiguous answers and returning to the topic later by rephrasing the topic to gain a deeper insight into the sensitive phenomenon
How can a researcher make use of reflexivity?
researchers should reflect on the possibility that their own biases might have interfered with the observations or interpretations
What does reflexivity involve (when looking at results)?
Researchers need to identify the findings that may have been affected by biases the most and how
What are the 2 types of reflexivity?
- epistemological reflexivity
- personal reflexivity
What is epistemological reflexivity?
linked to knowledge of the strengths and limitations of the method used to collect data
What is personal reflexivity?
linked to the personal beliefs and expectations of the researcher
How are credibility checks used?
checking accuracy of data by asking participants themselves to read transcripts of interviews or field notes of observations and confirm that they are an accurate representation of what they meant.
In what type of research methods are credibility checks most common?
interviews
What are thick descriptions?
refers to explaining not just the observed behaviour itself, but also the context in which it occurred so outsiders can understand
Why is bias so integral in qualitative research?
Integral part as the researcher is part of the observation process
Some bias types can be avoided but others are inevitable and need on be reflected upon
What 2 main categories of bias are present?
participant and researcher bias
What are the 4 main types of participant bias?
- acquiescence bias
- social desirability bias
- dominant respondent bias
- sensitivity bias
What is acquiescence bias?
tendency to give positive answers whatever the question
What may cause acquiescence bias?
Some are acquiescence by nature or it may be induced by nature of questions
How can a researcher avoid acquiescence bias?
to avoid, researchers should ask neutral questions
What is social desirability bias?
participants’ way to behave in a way that they think will make them be liked or accepted
What 2 ways can social desirability be avoided?
Questions should be framed in a non-judgemental way that suggests any answer is acceptable
Researchers use a trick where they ask about a third person
- Helps participants disengage from the sensitive answers and provide a more honest answer
What is dominant respondent bias?
One participant influences the behaviour and responses of the other
In what type of research method is dominant respondent bias most common?
- occurs in group interview setting i.e focus group
Why is dominant respondent bias a problem?
Dominant participants may take up talking time or intimidate others
How can dominant respondent bias be overcome? 3
researches should be trained to keep dominant respondents in check
Make sure all participants are provided with equal opportunities to speak
Safe and comfortable environment to voice their opinions
What is sensitivity bias?
The tendency of subjects to answer regular questions honestly but distort their responses to questions on sensitive subjects
May even give incorrect information to hide secrets
What is the solution to sensitivity bias?
Solution is to build a good rapport with each participant to build trust
Researcher needs to behave professionally, make ethical guidelines regarding issues such as confidentiality
Increase sensitivity of questions gradually while being responsible to the participants concerns
What are 5 types of researcher bias?
- confirmation bias
- leading question bias
- question order bias
- sampling bias
- biased reporting
What is confirmation bias?
Occurs when the researcher has a prior belief and uses the research in an unintentional attempt to confirm that belief
How can confirmation bias influence the study?
May influence the way questions are worded, small nuances in the researcher’s non-verbal behaviour and selectivity of attention while observing behaviour or interpreting the data
What is the solution to confirmation bias?
Reflexivity is the solution to confirmation bias
It is largely unavoidable due to it being a deeply grounded error in human information processing
What is leading question bias?
Occurs when respondents are inclined to answer in a certain way because the wording of the question encourages them to do so
How could leading question bias occur?
Despite the planned nature of an interview, researchers usually add additional or clarification questions which may cause distortions in the responses
How can leading question bias be avoided?
researches should be vigorously trained in asking open-ended neutral questions
Should avoid paraphrasing the participant’s response for clarification - should be in participants own language
What is question order bias?
Occurs when responses to one question influence the participant’s response to the following questions
How can question order bias be minimised? 3
To minimize this bias, general questions should’ve asked before more specific ones
Positive questions before negative ones
Behaviour questions before attitude questions
What is sampling bias?
Occurs when the sample is not adequate for the aims of the research
What might cause sampling bias?
May be the result of convenience sampling or participants who take part only for financial incentives
How could sampling bias be minimised?
Professional participants (above) are easy to contact and choose but a sample made entirely of them should be used with caution
use a more suitable sampling method e.g quota
What is biased reporting?
Occurs when some findings of the study are not equally represented in the research report
What methods can be used to counteract biased reporting?
Reflexivity, integrity and training of researchers are the means to counteract biased reporting
What is generalisation?
Generalisation is a broad inference from particular observations
What is the main argument against generalisability in qualitative research?
The main argument against generalisability in qualitative research is that samples are not statistically representative of the target population
How can sampling (in ql) be described?
non-probabilistic - not equal chance of every person in population being picked
What are the 5 main types of sampling?
- quota
- purposive
- theoretical
- snowball
- convenience
How does quota sampling work?
Decided prior to start of research how many people to include in the sample and which characteristics they should have
How are people recruited via quota sampling?
Recruited using various recruitment strategies until quota is met
What type of quantitative sampling is quota sampling similar to and why?
Similar to stratified sampling in quantitative research - necessary sample proportions and important participant characteristics are pre-defined
What type of qualitative sampling is purposive sampling similar to and how?
Similar to quota sampling in the sense that the main characteristics of participants are defined in advance and then researchers recruit participants who have these characteristics
What is one difference between purposive and quota sampling?
Proportions and the sample size are NOT DEFINED
What is one difference between purposive and quota sampling?
Proportions and the sample size are NOT DEFINED
How does theoretical sampling work?
Special type of purposive sampling that stops when the point of data saturation is reached
What is data saturation?
no new information is obtained from new participants added to the sample
How can we decide that data contributes to data saturation or not?
Whether info is “new” or not is defined on the basis of a background theory i.e if no new evidence or counterevidence is found
What type of generalisation can be made from theoretical sampling?
Generalization is made from data to theory
What is snowball sampling?
A small number of participants are invited and asked to invite other people they know who also are of interest (for the purposes of research)
When is snowball sampling most commonly used?
Mostly used in pilot research studies - insufficient resources to carefully select participants
Or in research where groups of people are hard to reach e.g drug users or youth gang members
What is convenience sampling?
Most superficial approach
Use sample that is easily available or accessible
What type of sampling methods are more generalisable?
Studies using quota, purposive or theoretical sampling are more generalisable
What 3 types of generalisability are there?
- sample-to-population
- theoretical
- case-to-case / transferability
How would a researcher try to ensure sample-to-population generalisation?
Researcher starts by identifying the target population and then selects a sample that is representative of this population
What is the best approach to get sample-to-population generalisation?
Best approach is to use random sampling
What type of concept is used to describe sample-to-population generalizability?
population validity
Is sample-to-population generalisation likely in qualitative research?
Due to non-probabilistic nature of samples in qualitative research - this type of generalisation is difficult
How is theoretical generalisation used?
Made from a particular observation to a broader theory
What form does theoretical generalisation take in quantitative research?
takes from of construct validity
What form does theoretical generalisation take in qualitative research?
achieved through rigorous analysis and interpretation of research findings
When can we use theoretical generalisation? (generalise to a wider theory)
data saturation was achieved
Thick descriptions provided
Analysis was in-depth and free of biases
In what type of research does theory play a greater role in?
Theory plays a greater role in qualitative than quantitative
What is generalisation made from in case-to-case generalisation?
Generalization is made to a different group of people or a different setting or context
How could a researcher try to strengthen case-to-case generalisation?
the responsibility of both researcher and reader of the report
Researcher’s responsibility - to ensure that thick descriptions are provided so that reader has sufficient information and details about the context of the study
Reader’s responsibility - to decide whether the context described in the report is similar to a new situation
What would be the equivalent of case-to-case generalisation in quantitative research
Equivalent in quantitative research would be ecological validity
