13.3 tourism Flashcards
1
Q
reasons for growth of international tourism
A
- rising incomes
- decreasing costs
- wilder range of destinations
- more marketing: Chernobyl TV show increased visits by 40%.
- growth of budget airlines
- globalisation of work
- air miles rewards schemes
- increase number of paid leave days
- desire to experience other cultures
- social expectations of travel
- high levels of migration
- government investment in tourism
- major international events such as the world cup or the olympics
2
Q
recessions can negatively affect tourism
A
- some may avoid for ethical reasons
- government restrictions on tourism
- perceptions of Terror or Boycotting
- The coronavirus pandemic caused a 72% decline in international tourist arrivals in 2020 and 71% in 2021, compared to 2019
3
Q
Buttler’s model of the life cycle of tourism
A
- evolution of tourist area
- exploration, involvement - development - consolidation - stagnation, decline
- end result may be rejuvenation, stabilisation, stagnation or decline
- Blackpool: fits the Butler model very well
4
Q
Doxey’s index (Irridex) for the life cycle of tourism
A
- shows approaches of the hosts to tourists over time
- initially the reception is positive
- over time sours
- in the final stage (5) environment changed irreversibly
- type of tourists changed
- location will only continue to survive if it can cater to mass tourism
1. euphoria : initial development, anticipation, informal contact with tourists
2. apathy : more formal contact, source of income
3. irritation (annoyance) : costs outweigh benefits to locals
4. antagonism : irritation expressed, tourists blamed
5. final level: environmental degradation, resource base and tourist type changes
5
Q
development of international tourism
A
- WTO: top five export categories for 83% of countries and main source of foreign exchange for 38%
- Europe attracts more than 50% of all international tourists
- tourism vulnerable to external shocks
6
Q
negative social and cultural impact of tourism
A
- the loss of locally owned land
- abandonment of traditional values and practices
- Displacement of locals for tourist activities
- abuse of human rights by government and companies in quest to maximise profits
- alcoholism and drug abuse
- crime and prostitution increases
- visitor congestions at key locations, hindering movement of locals
- denying local people access to beached to provide exclusivity for visitors
- loss of housing for locals as visitors buy second homes
- education is most important element so that visitors are made aware of the sensitive aspects of the host culture
- visitor congestion
- Tourists in Goa use 28x more electricity per person than locals – impinges on needs of locals
7
Q
environmental impacts of tourism
A
- tourist numbers may exceed carrying capacity of a destination: too much burden on local resources
- physical environment cannot accommodate visitors without resultant deterioration and degradation
- governments reluctant to limit number of arrivals in desperate need for foreign currency
- Great Barrier Reef receives 2 million visitors a year
- revenues can fund designation and management of protected areas
- ecotourism spreads awareness
- Tourist revenues fund protection schemes and designation/management of national forests/parks
- Land lost to build hotels and attractions
- Some golf courses use enough water for 5000 people per day, take land from local communities
- ## 2002: 700,000 tonnes of CO2 released from flights from the UK to Cyprus alone
8
Q
positive cultural and social impacts of tourism
A
- can increase range of social facilities for locals
- family ties strengthened by visits
- develop foreign language skills
- encourage migration
- multitude of cultures congregating together can have very positive global impact
- Greater understanding, blending and appreciation of different cultures
- Locals can develop language skills
- Facilities and resources develop
9
Q
negative economic impacts of tourism
A
- economic leakages: revenue generated through tourism is lost to other countries or economies (In Fiji, it is estimated that 60% of the money earned through tourism ends up leaving the country)
- labour intensive, most low paid and seasonal
- Money borrowed for tourism development increases national debt
- All inclusive guests spend all money in hotel – none towards local economy/small businesses
- tourism might not be best use of local resources that could in the future create a larger multiplier effect is used by a different economic sector
- ## locations can become overdependent on tourism
10
Q
positive economic impacts of tourism
A
- tourism has both direct (eg. hotels) and indirect (eg. aircraft manufacture) economic effects
- benefits economy
- benefits all sectors: multiplier effect
- Provides considerable tax revenue (jobs and corporate tax rates) for governments, can balance loan payments
- providing employment in rural areas reduces rural-urban migration
- acts as a growth pole
- Support informal sector/small business jobs
- opening for small businesses
- many jobs in the informal sector where money goes directly to locals
11
Q
Niche Tourism
A
- opposite of mass tourism, undertaken for a specific reason, desire for more sustainable tourism, desire to engage in novel interests
- specific tourism aspect can be tailored to meet the needs of a market segment, which is interested in something particular or distinct
- Costa Rica zip lining (adventure tourism)
- Italy for food (culinary tourism)
- Tourists get bored of traditional ‘sun, sand and sea’ tourism, and diversify their travel to experience different parts of the world
12
Q
Destination Footprint:
A
the amount of greenhouse gas emissions generated by people during tourism (8% of all CO2 emissions)
13
Q
International tourist receipts:
A
expenditure by international inbound visitors, including payments to national carriers for international transport
14
Q
Package holidays
A
accommodation and transport sold together by a tour operator
15
Q
Tourist enclave
A
purposely separating tourists from the general population
16
Q
Ecotourism/sustainable tourism:
A
- sustainable tourism
- Ecotourism growing at 5% per year
- aims to have minimal community and ecological degradation
- Balances development and conservation
- Tourism that takes full account of its current and future economic, social and environmental impacts, addressing the needs of visitors, the industry, the environment and host communities.
- Six Senses resort in Fiji , which is powered solely on solar power, recycles rainwater, runs on a low-waste model, and uses handiwork such as furnishings and artwork created by local villagers
- Extinction Rebellion and Green Peace
- Information spread and online carbon calculators highlight the impact
- Kimana Conservancy, Kenya: charges $10. Money used for development, and reduces pressure on national park
17
Q
political factors of tourism
A
- Use of visas to encourage or control numbers
- Restrictions on travel into or out of countries
- War, internal conflict, terrorism
- Government investment in the tourist industry for facilities, education and skills training, marketing and advertising
- Government backing to fund bids for major international events
- Promotion by the UN as part of achieving millennium development goals and/or sustainable development goals
- Other
18
Q
economic factors of tourism
A
- Increased affluence and increased disposable income
- Increased leisure time due to holiday entitlement and pay
- Reduced relative cost of air travel
- Globalisation and increased business travel
- TNC involvement
- Package holidays
- Marketing and advertising
- Other
19
Q
social factors of tourism
A
- Increased life expectancy
- Early retirement
- Media/use of internet
- Desire for travel and new experiences
- International migration (visiting relatives)
- Covid-19
- Other
20
Q
what is tourism
A
- a person or groups of people that travel for business, professional, leisure, recreation or holidays; to visit friends and relatives; in a place that is not their home environment
- more than 1 day, less than 1 year
- Tourism: includes all activities and services that tourists take part in or depend on
21
Q
economic reasons for growth of tourism
A
- Rising incomes: most HIC families have two working parents – tourism grows 1.3x faster than GDP
- Lower costs: budget airlines and decreased real costs
- Marketing: increased exposure to destinations, and intense promotion of short breaks to those with disposable income
- Globalisation: increased business travel
- Recession: reduces levels of tourism
22
Q
social reasons for growth of tourism
A
- Paid leave: most jobs offer paid holiday, workers have more free time and disposable income
- Experience: new cultures and landscapes
- Media coverage: more exposure to destinations
- High international migration: more relatives/friends live in other countries, therefore people travel more
- Ethical reasons: 2016 Rio Olympics caused evictions and demolishment of buildings
- education
23
Q
political reasons for growth of tourism
A
- Investment: heavy tourism investment
- Bidding: for events (UK 2012 Olympics)
- Terror risk: perceived higher risk in some destinations
- Travel restrictions: to certain countries (US to/from China and Europe)
- Boycotts: NGOs promote boycotting destinations where human rights are violated (Burma)
24
Q
physical reasons for growth of tourism
A
- Wildfires: 2018, 2019, 2020 California/Australia
- Eruptions: 2010 E15 in Iceland, ash prevented flights
- Tsunami: 2004 Indonesian Boxing Day
- Earthquake: 2010 Haiti
- Tropical storms: 2005 Katrina
25
health reasons for growth of tourism
- COVID-19 pandemic: global travel/flights stopped
- 2016 Rio Olympics: Zika virus outbreak (risk to pregnancies)
- Health insurance: $100 per week in USA
- Water quality: Mexico and South America = poor
- Injections: cost of pre-travel drugs (Malaria etc...)
- Ebola 2015: African outbreak
26
Soft measures
marketing campaigns (websites, trade fairs etc…), takes a positive, gentle approach
27
Hard measures
: installation of infrastructure, tax exemptions to encourage investors, financial promotion and physical incentives
28
travel motivators
- Leisure: holidays, sport/culture, educational trips, pilgrimage
- Business: conference, exhibition, meetings
- Friends/Relatives: meet friends, visit family
- Destination preferences: climate, attractions, festivals, events, accommodation, services, transport
- Externalities: destination security, exchange rate
- education
29
changes in growth
- Europe: favourable exchange rates in Turkey, 2018 FIFA World Cup in Russia, Spain’s low-cost holidays
- Asia and Pacific: increased purchasing power, air connectivity and visa facilitation. Japan 2021 Olympics
- Americas: South American ‘instagrammable’ moments, Caribbean stagnation due to 2017 hurricane
- Africa: strong South African country, but drought. Improved security and positive travel advice
- Middle East: 2020 Expo Dubai
30
history of growth
- 400BC: tourism for the rich, to visit family and spas
- 1066: allows rich to show social status for business and pilgrimage
- 1700: The Grand Tour/spa trips for rich, but package -holiday developed
- 1900: mass tourism develops, rural tourism rises in UK Two world wars, but recovery
- 1950: affordable air travel and increased disposable income births the Free Independent Traveller
- 2000s: low cost travel comes into its prime, despite setbacks such as SARS/Ebola/Coronavirus. Special interest travel and local ‘staycations’ rise in popularity
31
Impacts over time (↑ or ↓ in tourism)
1820: regular steamboat on English Channel = ↑
1936: DC3 aircraft starts commercial operation = ↑
1992: Soviet union collapses = ↑
2001: September 11 attacks = ↓
2018: Brexit and collapse of Thomas Cook = ↓
2020: COVID-19 pandemic = ↓
32
tourism carrying capacity
“The maximum number of people that may visit a tourist destination at the same time without causing destruction of the physical, economic, socio-cultural environment and an unacceptable decrease in in the quality of visitors’ satisfaction”
- physical, economical, socio-cultural, biophysical
33
Resource consumption
tourists place a large demand on water in areas with low rainfall. Traffic too is an issue
34
Limits
an area can still be crowded and uncomfortable when below the carrying capacity. Fundamentally flawed in the sense that it is difficult to calculate, as depends on activities tourists do
35
Multiplier Effect
- How many times money spent by a tourist circulates in a local economy
- Continues until money ‘leaks’ from local economy as imports are purchased, or remittances are returned
- money spent in hotel: Directly creates jobs, Hotel buys food from local producers, Producers buy local fertilisers and clothes, Secondary employment increases as tourists buy souvenirs
- ratio of change in national income arising from any autonomous change in spending
- when an initial injection into the circular flow causes a bigger final increase in real national income
36
extreme tourism
- Antarctica: 2007 Explorer ship submerged – oil leak caused extensive environmental damage
- travel to dangerous places, or participation in dangerous events. Also called shock tourism, and overlaps with extreme sport tourism
- ‘Trophy tourism’ for rich and elite – hunting, boasting rights and social media culture
37
dark tourism
- Chernobyl TV show increased visits by 40%
- visit areas affected by or associated with disasters or public tragedies. Fascination with real-world events
- Rise in accessibility of information
- Ability to educate tourists, allows them to emotionally absorb themselves in an atmosphere similar to the time of the disaster
- Auschwitz concentration camp
38
adventure tourism
- Adventure tourism was worth over $600bn in 2019
- Adventure tourism growing at a rate of 46% by 2020
- involves exploration or travel with a certain degree of risk, possibly requiring special skills or physical exertion
- Under 30s can step outside of their comfort zone
- Desire to experience risk, challenge or exhaustion
- Rise in ‘Instagram’ culture – impressive photos on social media, makes people want to do the same
39
1. Exploration – discovery/adventure (Guatemala)
- Few tourists visit the area and few facilities
- Attracted to undeveloped nature of area
- Much interaction between locals and tourists
- Area information spreads by word of mouth
40
2 . Involvement – independent travel (Cambodia)
- Steady increase in numbers and facility quality
- Pressure on local govt to improve and promote tourism activities
- Season develops, locals leave current jobs
41
3. Development – early package holidays (Chile)
- Large, rapid increase in the number of tourists
- Modern facilities, but not run by locals
- Tensions between locals and outsiders who control development
- More people discover, more advertising, more people visit, more shops open, much busier
42
4. Consolidation – package holidays (Tenerife)
- Rate of increase in tourist numbers decreases
- Wide awareness of resort/location
- Locals employed in industry, people move into area for jobs, locals feel tourists in control
-Congestion in summer when area is full
43
5. Stagnation – cheap holidays (Benidorm, Greece)
- Area loses its popularity due to ‘tackiness’, ageing facilities, changing tourism fashions
- May be due to over-reliance on single attraction
- Agitation from ignored locals
- Area so busy, so people go elsewhere
- Some shops close down - unemployment
44
6. Rejuvenation/Decline
- Development of niche market or new USP
- Loyal tourists return
- New money, advertising, ‘buzz’, new tourists, new jobs
- Resort survives
or
- Resort offers no new attractions
- Bored tourists go elsewhere
- High unemployment (due to reliance)
- ‘Tacky’ reputation· Area looks neglected
45
positives of the butler model
- No specific numbers or values means it is adaptable
- Used as a guide, can help plan infrastructure/ development and sustainable practices
- Shows development and rate of tourism over time
46
negatives of the butler model
- some limitations due to carrying capacity
- it is of limited practical use and it does not take into account all factors
- lack of empirical support, limited practical use
- Too simple and vague
- Only two final stages described in any detail
- Relies too heavily on carrying capacity concept, fails to recognise complexities of modern travel
- Assumes all destinations hit the stages in the same order, if at all
- Model doesn’t consider backwards movement in time
- No consideration of the seasonality of tourism
- Political heavyweight, but makes no policy theories
- Describes the lead of demand – ignoring uneven supply/demand relationship
- Development and consolidation shift is blurred
