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1.3 Flashcards

1
Q

List the components of the spinal canal

A 
Epidural space (fat)
Dura mater
Arachnoid mater
CSF
Pia mater
Spinal cord
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2
Q

Where does the epidural space lie relative to the dura mater?

A

Further away from the spinal cord

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3
Q

How many layers is the dura mater in the spinal cord?

A

1 layer (different from the dura mater in the CNS)

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4
Q

From outside to in (spine to spinal cord) list the order of the meninges

A

Dura mater
Arachnoid mater
Subarachnoid space (where CSF sits + location of many blood vessels)
Pia mater

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5
Q

In a lumbar puncture, where is the needle inserted into?

A

Between intervertebral space

through dura mater, arachnoid mater and into subarachnoid space to collect a sample of CSF

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6
Q

Where is local anaesthetic administered during an epidural?

A

Into the epidural space usually between spinal segments L3-4 or L4-5 (because the spinal cord ends around L1)

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7
Q

What happens if there is excessive local anaesthetic infusion into the subarachnoid space?

A

Total spinal block

Which results in hypotension, loss of consciousness and apnoea

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8
Q

Which is the thinest layer of the meninges?

A

Pia mater

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9
Q

Where do the spinal nerves exit?

A

Laterally via the combination of the dorsal and ventral roots

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10
Q

Which direction does the spinous process protrude?

A

Posteriorly

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11
Q

Bifid spinous processes are unique to which vertebrae?

A

Cervical

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12
Q

How many cervical nerves does the spinal cord give off?

A

8

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13
Q

How many cervical vertebrae are there?

A

7

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14
Q

How many thoracic nerves does the spinal cord give off?

A

12

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15
Q

How many lumbar nerves does the spinal cord give off?

A

5

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16
Q

How many sacral nerves does the spinal cord give off?

A

5

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17
Q

How many cocygeal nerves does the spinal cord give off?

A

1

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18
Q

Where does the first cervical nerve arise from?

A

Above C1 vertebra

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19
Q

Where does the 8th cervical nerve arise from?

A

Below C7 vertebrae

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20
Q

What does the cervical enlargement supply?

A

Brachial plexus to the arm

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21
Q

What does the lumbar enlargement supply?

A

Leg

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22
Q

Which is longer, the spinal cord or spinal column?

A

Column is longer

Cord ends at L1

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23
Q

How does the spinal nerves exit at the correct vertebral level if the cord is shorter than the spinal column?

A

Spinal nerves descend within canal before exiting at the corresponding vertebral level

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24
Q

Where is the conus medullaris?

A

L1-2

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25
Q

What is the cauda equina?

A

Sacral spinal nerves within spinal canal (which descend to their appropriate vertebral level before exiting the spinal column)

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26
Q

Where does the filum terminale attache?

A

To posterior sacrum

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27
Q

Describe the blood supply of the spinal cord

A

1 anterior spinal artery and 2 posterior spinal arteries

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28
Q

What is the anterior spinal artery associated with?

A

Motor and spinothalamic

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29
Q

What is the posterior spinal arteries associated with?

A

Dorsal columns

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30
Q

What does enlargement at the ventral horn indicate?

A

Higher density of lower motor neurons in that area

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31
Q

What does infarction of the artery of Adamkiewicz (lower 2/3rd of anterior spinal) cause?

A

A lower limb motor paralysis w/ dissociated sensory loss due to sparing of dorsal colunns

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32
Q

What is the filum terminale?

A

Extension of the pia mater which attaches the spinal cord to the posterior sacrum

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33
Q

Where does the artery of Adamkiewicz come from?

A

Aorta

This artery is particularly important for supplying the lower 2/3rds of the anterior spinal artery

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34
Q

Which vessels supply the spinal arteries?

A

Vertebral, intercostal, aorta, lumbar

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35
Q

Which proportion of the spinal cord does the anterior and posterior arteries supply?

A

1 anterior artery - 2/3rd

2 posterior arteries - 1/3rd

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36
Q

Which arteries supply the dorsal horns (thus the sensory part of the cord)?

A

Posterior spinal arteries

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37
Q

List the ascending sensory spinal tracts.

A

Spinothalamic

Spinocerebellar

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38
Q

What is a tract?

A

Group of axons travelling in similar direction w/ similar functoin

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39
Q

Where does the spinocerebellar tract carry information from and to?

A

From periphery to cerebellum

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40
Q

List the descending motor tracts

A

Corticospinal (lateral + ventral)

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41
Q

What is somatotopic mapping

A

There is an area within the CNS that corresponds to an area in the body

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42
Q

Give an example of how somatotopic mapping is demonstrated in the spinal cord

A

The medial neurons in the ventral horns supply postural extensor muscles

The lateral neurons in the ventral horn supply the distal flexors

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43
Q

What type of fibres does the dorsal root contain?

A

Afferent - carry sensory info

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44
Q

What lies in the dorsal root ganglion

A

Location of cell bodies for almost all primary sensory afferent neurons

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45
Q

Where do the ventral and dorsal root mix?

A

Spinal nerve

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46
Q

What do medial lower motor neurons control?

A

Proximal, postural, extensors

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47
Q

What do lateral lower motor neurons control?

A

Distal, fine control, flexors

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48
Q

Spinal nerves give off plexuses which give off what?

A

Peripheral nerves - which supply a group of muscles/skin

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49
Q

Define neurotome

A

Area of skin innervated by a peripheral nerve

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50
Q

Spinal nerves give off plexuses which give off what?

A

Peripheral nerves - which supply a group of muscles/area of skin skin

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51
Q

Define myotome

A

Group of muscles innervated by a spinal nerve

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52
Q

Name the 4 joints of the shoulder girdle

A

Sternoclavicular
Acromioclavicular
Glenohumeral
Scapulothoracic - not a true articulation

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53
Q

What is the upper limb broken down into?

A

Shoulder girdle
Arm - 2 compartments
Forearm - 2 compartments
Wrist + hand

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54
Q

Which is the most lateral process of the scapula?

A

Acromion

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55
Q

The scapulothoracic joint isn’t a true articulation but there is movement of the scapula upon the rib cage in which movement in particular?

A

Last stages of the abduction of the upper limb

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56
Q

The scapulothoracic joint isn’t a true articulation but there is movement of the scapula upon the rib cage in which movement in particular?

A

Last stages of the abduction of the upper limb particularly

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57
Q

The glenoid fossa isn’t very deep so how is the head of the humerus held in position?

A

Supported by a number of ligaments

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58
Q

What is the glenoid labrum

A

Ring of fibrocartilage that sits on edge of glenoid fossa

Helps to deepen the fossa + improve articulation

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59
Q

How many muscles articulate with the scapula?

A

17

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60
Q

What is the acromion a part of?

A

Scapula

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61
Q

What is the coracoid process a part of?

A

Scapula

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62
Q

Whatis the subscapular muscle a part of?

A

Rotator muscles

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63
Q

Relative to the acromion, where is the coracoid process?

A

Medial, anterior, inferior to acromion

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64
Q

The glenoid fossa is quite flat, how is the head of the humerus held in the fossa?

A

With support from the ligaments ligaments.

  • Majority of which are thickenings of the joint capsule: glenohumeal, coracohumeral, transverse humer
  • Unlike the othrs, corcacoacromial ligament isn not a thickening of the joint capsule

The glenoid labrum - fibrocartilage than helps deepen the fossa

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65
Q

Name the ligaments between the scapular and humerus

A

Glenohumeral ligaments (superior, middle, inferior)
Coracohumeral ligament
Transverse humeral ligament

Coracoacromial ligament

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66
Q

What is the function of the glenohumeral ligaments?

A

Stabilise the anterior aspect of the shoulder joint

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67
Q

Which ligament prevents superior displacement of the shoulder joint?

A

Corcacoacromial ligament

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68
Q

What is the role of the corcacohumeral ligament?

A

Attaches the base of the coracoid process of the greater tubercle of the humerus

Supports the superior part of the joint capsule

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69
Q

What is the role of the transverse humeral ligament?

A

Holds tendon of the long head of the biceps in the intertubercular groove

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70
Q

What is the span of the transverse humeral ligament?

A

Spans the distance between the 2 tubercles of the humerus

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71
Q

What is the joint capsule?

A

A fibrous sheeth which encloses the structures of the joint

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72
Q

Where does the shoulder joint capsule extend?

A

From the anatomical neck of the humerus to the border of the glenoid fossa

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73
Q

The joint capsule is lax, what does this permitted?

A

Greater mobility (particular abduction)

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74
Q

What structure produces synovial fluid?

A

Synovial membranes that lines the inner surface of the joint capsule

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75
Q

Purpose of synovial bursae

A

Reduce friction in the shoulder joint

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76
Q

What is a bursa?

A

A synovial fluid filled sac

Acts as a cushion between tendons + other joint structures

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77
Q

Name 2 important bursae

A

Subacromial - located inferiorly to deltoid + acromion, superiorly to supraspinatus tenson + joint capsule

Subscapular - between subscapularis tendon + scapula

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78
Q

What does the subacromial bursa support?

A

Deltoid + supraspinatus muscles

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79
Q

Which bursa reduces wear and tear on the subscapularis tendon during movement at the shoulder joint?

A

Subscapular

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80
Q

Arterial supply to the glenohumeral joint is via which arteries?

A

Anterior + posterior circumflex artereies

Supracular artery

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81
Q

The glenohumeral joint is supplied by which nerves?

A

Axillary, suprascapular, lateral pectoral nerves

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82
Q

What are the nerve roots of the axillary, suprascapular, lateral pectoral nerves?

A

C5 - C6 of the brachial plexus

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83
Q

What is adduction of the upper limb?

A

Upper limb towards midline in coronal plane

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84
Q

What movement does the posterior deltoid, latissmus dorsi an teres major muscles produce?

A

Extension - upper limb backwards in sagittal place

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85
Q

What movement does the biceps brachii (both heads), pectoralis major, anteriior deltoid and coracobrachialis produce?

A

Flexion

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86
Q

What muscle produces the first 0-15 degrees of abduction of UL?

A

Supraspinatus

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87
Q

Which muscle is responsible for the next 15-90 degrees of the abduction of UL?

A

Middle fibers of deltoid

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88
Q

Past 90 degrees of abduction of UL, what needs to rotate?

Which muscles do this rotation?

A

Scapula - carried out by the trapezius + serratus anteroir

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89
Q

What is abduction of the UL?

A

Upper limb away from midline in coronal plane

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90
Q

What is medial rotation of the UL?

A

Rotation towards the midline

So thumb is pointing medially

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91
Q

What is lateral rotation of the UL?

A

Rotation away from the midline

So that the thumb is pointing laterally

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92
Q

Which muscles are responsible for lateral rotation of UL?

A

Infraspinatus

Teres minor

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93
Q

Which muscles are responsible for medial rotation of UL?

A

Subscapularis, pectoralis majorm, latissimus dorsi, tersmajor, anterior deltoid

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94
Q

What type of joint is the shoulder joint?

A

Ball + socket joint

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95
Q

Name the 4 rotator cuff muscles

A

Subscapularis (upper and lower subscapular nerves, posterior cord of brachial plexus, C5-C7)

Supraspinatus (suprascapular nerve , superior trunk of brachial plexus, C5-C6)

Infraspinatus (innervation same as supraspinatus)

Teres minor (posterior branch of axillary nerve, C5-C6)

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96
Q

What forms the coraco-acromial arch?

A

Coracoacomial ligament

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97
Q

What is anterior dislocation usually caused by?

A

Excessive extension + lateral rotation of the humerus

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98
Q

Injury to what can cause paralysis of the deltoid?

A

Axillary nerve - can be damanged in dislocation

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99
Q

How is deltoid paralysis assessed?

A

Test sensation overregimental badge area (C5)

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100
Q

What is rotator cuff tendonitis?

A

Inflammation of the muscle tendons usually due to overuse

Overtime this causes degenerative changes in teh subacroial bursa + suipraspinatus tendon

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101
Q

How many ligaments connect that acromion, coracoid and clavicle

A

3

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102
Q

Innervation of supraspinatus muscle?

A

The axillary nerve (roots C5, C6) from the posterior cord of the brachial plexus

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103
Q

Innervation of teres minor muscle?

A

Suprascapular Nerve, C5, C6, superior trunk of the brachial plexus.

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104
Q

Innervation of infraspinatus muscle?

A

Suprascapular Nerve (C5, C6)

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105
Q

Innervation of subscapularis muscle?

A

Upper and lower subscapular nerves which come from the posterior cord of the brachial plexus.

Suprascapular Nerve (C5, C6)

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106
Q

Arterial supply of subscapular muscle

A

Subscapular artery

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107
Q

Arterial supply of infraspinatus muscle

A

Suprascapular and circumflex scapular arteries

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108
Q

Which rotator cuff muscle is the smallest?

A

Supraspinatus is the smallest of the 4 muscles which comprise the Rotator Cuff of the shoulder joint specifically in the supraspinatus fossa.[1]

It travels underneath the acromion

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109
Q

Action of subscapularis muscle

A

It abducts the arm from 0 to 15 degrees, when it is the main agonist, then assists deltoid to produce abduction beyond this range up to 90 degrees.

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110
Q

What 2 ligaments make up the coracoclavicular ligament?

A

Conoid + trapeziod

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111
Q

What are the 2 compartments of the arm?

A

Anterior and posterior

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112
Q

What does the axillary artery become once it leaves the axillary area?

A

Brachial artery

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113
Q

First branch of brachial artery?

A

Profunda artery

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114
Q

What is the source of the axillary artery?

A

Subclavian artery

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115
Q

What is the profunda brachii artery?

A

The deep artery of arm (also known as arteria profunda brachii and the deep brachial artery) is a large vessel which arises from the lateral and posterior part of the brachial artery, just below the lower border of the teres major.

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116
Q

Jut after the intercubital fossa what dos the brachial artery divided into>

A

Radial and ulnar arteries

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117
Q

Which movement is the supraspinatus muscle responsible for?

A

Abduction

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118
Q

Which movement is the infraspinus muscle responsible for?

A

External rotation

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119
Q

Which movements is the subscapularis muscle responsible for?

A

Internal rotation

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120
Q

Which movement is the teres minor muscle responsible for?

A

External rotation

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121
Q

Where does the cephalic vein run along?

A

Lateral aspect of arm

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122
Q

Where does the basilic vein run along?

A

Medial aspect of arm

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123
Q

What does the brachial plexus supply?

A

Upper limb

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124
Q

How is the brachial plexus formed?

A

Roots, trunks, divisions, cords, branches

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125
Q

Where does the long thoracic nerve come off?

A

This nerve characteristically arises from the anterior rami of three spinal nerve roots: (C5-C7) although the root from C7 may be absent

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126
Q

What does the long thoracic nerve supply?

A

Supplies the serratus anterior muscle.

Thoracodorsal nerve (C6 – C8)

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127
Q

What does the thoracodoesal nerve supply?

A

Latissimus dorsi

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128
Q

What does the names of the cords of the brachial plexus refer to?

A

Nerve position relative to the axillary artery

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129
Q

How is the posterior cord relate to the axillary artery?

A

It is posterior to the artery

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130
Q

How is the medial cord relate to the axillary artery?

A

Medial to the artery

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131
Q

Where does serratus anterior run along?

A

Runs from lateral aspect of ribs (1-8/9) to scapula

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132
Q

What is the relation between serratus anterior and subscapularis muscle?

A

The serratus anterior lies deep to the subscapularis, from which it is separated by the subscapularis (supraserratus) bursa

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133
Q

What does the intraserratus (scapulothoracic) bursa separate?

A

Ribs from serratus anterior muscle

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134
Q

Why is serratus anterior occasionally called the “big swing muscle” or “boxer’s muscle”?

A

Because it is largely responsible for the protraction of the scapula — that is, the pulling of the scapula forward and around the rib cage that occurs when someone throws a punch.

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135
Q

Contration of latissmus dorsi does what?

A

Depression, adducts, extends and internally rotates the arm at the shoulder

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136
Q

3 muscles that contribute to arm abduction

A

Suprapintus - initiates

Deltoid - most of range (15-90)

Trapezius - elevation

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137
Q

Painful arc syndrome (30-90/110)

A

30-90

Occurs due to entrapment of structures underneath the corcoacromial arch

Supraspinatus tendinitus can cause this

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138
Q

What do all anterior compartment muscles of the arm have in common?

A

They are all flexors of the elbow

Many are also flexors o shoulder joint

All innervated by musculocutaneous nerve (except brachioradialis - innervated by radial nerve)

All arterially supplied by profunda brachii

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139
Q

What is painful arc syndrome?

A

Patient has pain on arm abduction particularly between 30-90 degrees

Occurs due to entrapment of structures below coracoacromial arch

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140
Q

What does the trapezius muscles do to the arm?

A

Elevation

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141
Q

Which nerve innervates the anterior compartment of the arm?

A

Musculocutaneous

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142
Q

Action of anterior compartment of arm muscles

A

Flexers of the elbow, many are also flexors at the shoulder joint

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143
Q

List anterior arm compartment muscles

A

Coracobrachialis
Biceps brachii
Brachialis

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144
Q

List posterior arm compartment muscles

A

Triceps brachii
Anconeus
Articularis cubiti

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145
Q

List muscles in the superficial anterior forearm compartment

A 
Pronator teres
Palmaris longus
Flexor carpi radialis 
Flexor carpi ulnaris
Flexor digitorum superficialis
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146
Q

List muscles in the deep anterior forearm compartment

A

Pronator quadratus flexor Digitorum profundus flexor Pollicis longus

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147
Q

List muscles in the superficial posterior forearm compartment

A

Brachioradialis
Extensor carpi
Radialis longus
Brevis extensor

Digitorum extensor
Digiti minimi
Extensor carpi ulnaris

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148
Q

List muscles in the deep posterior forearm compartment

A 
Supinator
Abductor pollicis longus 
Extensor pollicis brevis 
Extensor pollicis longus 
Extensor indicis
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149
Q

List hand muscles in the lateral volar

A

Thenar:

  • opponens pollicis
  • flexor pollicis brevis
  • abductor pollicis brevis

Adductor pollicis

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150
Q

List hand muscles in the medial volar

A

Hypothenar:

  • opponens digiti minimi
  • flexor digiti minimi brevis
  • abductor digiti minimi

Palmaris brevis

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151
Q

Hand muscles of the intermediate area

A

Lumbrical

Interossei dorsal palmar

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152
Q

List the fascia of the anterior hand

A

Flexor retinaculum

Palmar aponeurosis

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153
Q

List the fascia of the posterior hand

A

Extensor retinaculum

Extensor expansion

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154
Q

Name the muscles in the anatomical snuffbox

A

Abductor pollicis longus
Extensor pollicis brevis
Extensor pollicis longus

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155
Q

Which nerve innervates the muscles of the posterior compartment of the arm?

A

Radial nerve

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156
Q

Which artery supplies the arm muscles?

A

Profunda brachii

Arm is from shoulder to elbow

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157
Q

What is the significance of the Annular ligament?

A

It runs from ulna and raps around head of radius

In young children, the radial head can split out from underneath the annular ligament (when you swing children by forearms)

Is painful but can be reduced easily

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158
Q

What is the innervation of the forearm anterior compartment muscles?

A

Median nerve mostly

and ulnar nerve

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159
Q

What is the function of the forearm anterior compartment muscles?

A

Flexors of wrist + fingers

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160
Q

What is the vasculature of the forearm anterior compartment muscles?

A

Radial + ulnar arteries

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161
Q

What can the anterior forearm compartment be split into?

A

Superficial + deep layers

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162
Q

What is the function of the forearm posterior compartment muscles?

A

All extensors of wrist and fingers

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163
Q

Which nerve supplies the posterior forearm compartment muscles?

A

Radial nerve

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164
Q

Which arteries supply the posterior forearm compartment muscles?

A

Radial + ulnar arteries

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165
Q

Which bone contributes to the wrist joint the most, radius or ulna?

A

Radius

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166
Q

What movement occurs at the ulnar notch?

A

Supination + pronation

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167
Q

Which bones does the thumb connect via to the radius?

What does this mean when you fall and land with outstretched hand?

FOOSH injury - falling on outstretched hand

A

Thumb –> trapezium –> scaphoid –> radius

The force is transmitted to via all those bones to radius and continues up to axial skeleton and can end up with:
- Humeral, scaphoid, clavicular fractures

168
Q

Which hand muscles abduct fingers?

A

Dorsal interossei

169
Q

Which hand muscles adduct fingers?

A

Palmar interossei

170
Q

Which nerve supplies the dorsal + palmar interossei muscles?

A

Ulnar nerve

171
Q

Action of the lumbrical muscles of the hand

A

Flexors at the MCP joint

172
Q

Innervation of lumbrical muscles of hand

A

Lateral 2 supplied by - median

Medial 2 supplied by - ulna

173
Q

Function and innervation of the thenar eminence

A

Control thumb movements

Median nerve

174
Q

Function and innervation of the thenar eminence

A

Control movement of little finger predominantly

Ulnar nerve

175
Q

What is the anastomosis of the radial and ulnar arteries in the hand called?

What branches does this anastomosis give off?

A

Deep + superficial palmar arches

Give off digital palmar arteries

176
Q

Name the 2 nerves that supply the dorsum of the hand

A

Radial (lateral 3.5 digits)

Ulnar (medial1.5 digits)

177
Q

Name the 2 nerves that supply the palmar of the hand

A

Median (lateral 3.5 digits)

Ulnar (medial 1.5 digits)

178
Q

Which nerve supplies the medial 1.5 digits on the palmar and dorsal aspects of the hand?

A

Ulnar nerve

179
Q

Tenderness in the anatomical snuffbox tends to be a fracture of what?

A

Scaphoid bone

180
Q

Which nerve and tendons runs under the flexor retinaculum?

A

Flexor tendons

Median nerve

181
Q

What is compression of the median nerve under the flexor retinaculum called?

A

Carpal tunnel syndrome

182
Q

What does the brachial plexus (C5-T1) supply?

A

Upper limb

183
Q

What does the radial nerve supply?

A

Arm, forearm, hand EXTENSORS

184
Q

Which nerve supplies the thenar eminence?

A

Median nerve

185
Q

What is the hip joint an articulation between?

A

Femur + pelvis

Articulates at the acetabulum

Acetabulum is comprised of 3 bones that form the pelvis

186
Q

Name the 3 bones that make up the acetabulum?

A

Ilium, ischium, pubis

187
Q

Name the ligaments that keep the hip joint in place

A

Extrapsular

  • Iliofemoral
  • Pubofemoral
  • Ischiofemoral

Intracapsular
- Ligament of head of femur

188
Q

What does the external iliac artery become when it runs under the inguinal ligament?

A

Femoral artery

189
Q

Name the first branch of the femoral artery.

A

Profunda femoris (deep femoral)

190
Q

Name the arteries given off by profunda femoris

A

Medial circumflex

Lateral circumflex

191
Q

Name the branches given off by the lateral circumflex artery

A

Ascending branch

Descending branch

192
Q

Where does the descending branch of the lateral circumflex artery run along?

A

Along the capsular attachment line

Approximately the intratrochenteric line

193
Q

Damage to the anterior spinal cord leads to what type of deficit?

A

Motor deficit to muscles supplied by nerves below the damage

194
Q

How many anterior and posterior spinal arteries are there?

A

1 anterior (supplies anterior 2/3 of the cord)

2 posterior (supply the posterior 1/3 of the cord)

195
Q

Lesion of the posterior spinal artery causes what type of deficit?

A

Sensory

196
Q

Which tract is closer to the ventral horn within the spinal cord, spinocerebellar or spinothalamic?

A

Spinothalamic

197
Q

What do the medial nerves within the ventral horn supply?

A

Postural extensors

198
Q

What do the lateral nerves within the ventral horn supply?

A

Distal flexors

199
Q

Afferent fibres are contained within which spinal root?

A

Dorsal root

200
Q

Efferent fibres are contained within which spinal root?

A

Ventral root

201
Q

Where do the dorsal and ventral root meet?

A

Spinal nerve

202
Q

Name the anterior arm compartment muscles

A

Coracobrachialis
Biceps
Brachialis

203
Q

Name the posterior arm compartment muscles

A

Triceps brachii
Anconeus
Articularis cubiti

204
Q

Name the anterior forearm compartment muscles

A

Superficial

  • Pronator teres
  • Palmaris longus
  • Flexor carpi radialis
  • Flexor carpi ulnaris
  • Flexor digitorum sperficialis

Deep

  • Pronator quadratus
  • Flexor digitorum profundus
  • Flexor pollicis longus
205
Q

Name the posterior forearm compartment muscles

A

Superficial

  • Brachioradialis
  • Extensor carpi radialis longus + brevis
  • Extensor digitorum
  • Extensor digiti minimi
  • Extensor carpi ulnaris

Deep

  • Supinator
  • Extensor indicis
  • anatomical snuff box (abductor pollicis longus, extensor pollicis brevis, extensor pollicis longus)
206
Q

Name the anterior thigh compartment muscles

A
  • Sartorius
  • Quadriceps (rectus femoris, vastus lateralis, vastus intermedius, vastus medialis)
  • Articularis genus
207
Q

Name the medial thigh compartment muscles

A
  • Pectineus
  • External obturator
  • Gracilis
  • Adductor (longus, brevis, magnus, minimus)
208
Q

Name the posterior thigh compartment muscles

A
  • Hamstring (biceps femoris, semitendinosus, semimembranosus)
209
Q

Name the anterior leg compartment muscles

A

Tibialis anterior
Extensor hallucis longus
Extensor digitorum longus
Peroneus tertius

210
Q

Name the posterior leg compartment muscles

A

Deep

  • Tibialis posterior
  • Flexor hallucis longus
  • Flexor digitorum longus
  • Popliteus

Superficial

  • Gastrocnemius
  • Soleus
  • Plantaris
211
Q

Name the lateral leg compartment muscles

A

Fibularis (peroneus) longus

Fibularis (peroneus) brevis

212
Q

Of these two veins which runs medially up the arm and which runs laterally?

A

Basilic medially

Cephalic laterally

213
Q

Which two veins are united at the antecubital fossa very the median cubital vein?

A

Cephalic and basilic veins

214
Q

Which nerve innervates serratus anterior?

A

Long thoracic nerve

215
Q

What is deltoid innervated by?

A

Axillary nerve

216
Q

The 3 muscles involved in arm abduction.

A

Supraspinatus (initiation)
Deltoid (most of range)
Trapezius (elevation)

217
Q

Function of the anterior compartment of arm muscles.

A

They are all flexors of the elbow and many are flexors of the shoulder joint

218
Q

List all the intrinsic shoulder muscles.

A

Deltoid
Rotator cuff (supraspinatus, infraspinatus, teres minor, subscapularis)
Teres major

219
Q

Which muscle lies superficial to the brachialis muscle?

A

Biceps brachii

220
Q

Function of biceps brachii muscle

A

Flexors forearm at elbow joint

Supinates forearm at radio-ulnar joint

221
Q

Which compartment do supinators of the forearm belong to?

A

Posterior compartment of forearm

222
Q

Which posterior forearm compartment muscle is a flexor of the elbow, and responsible for supination and pronation of the forearm?

A

Brachioradialis

223
Q

Which artery and nerve supplies the brachioradialis muscle?

A

Radial nerve + artery

224
Q

Innervation and arteries supply of anterior arm compartment muscles (brachialis, coracobrachialis, biceps)?

A 
Musculocutaneous nerve (C5-7)
Brachial artery
225
Q

List all the extrinsic shoulder muscles.

A 
Trapezius
Latissimus dorsi
Rhomboid major
Rhomboid minor
Levator scapulae
Serratus anterior
226
Q

Which nerve innervates the trapezius muscle (extrinsic shoulder muscle)?

A

Accessory nerve (CN XI)

227
Q

Which nerve and artery supplies posterior arm compartment muscles (triceps)?

A 
Radial nerve (C6-8)
Brachial artery
228
Q

Between which structures is the articulation that make up the elbow joint?

A

Trochlear notch of ulna

Trochlea of humerus

229
Q

What is the ulnar processes on the posterior surface of the elbow known as?

A

Olecranon (process of ulna)

230
Q

In which compartment are almost all the flexors of the fingers and wrist?

A

Anterior (superficial and deep)

Median nerve

231
Q

In which compartment are the extensors of the hand and fingers?

What nerve supplies them?

A

Posterior compartment

Radial nerve

232
Q

Which nerve supplies almost all the flexors of the wrist and fingers?

A

Median nerve - supplies the anterior forearm compartment

233
Q

Which arteries supply the anterior and posterior forearm compartment muscles?

A

Radial (lateral aspect)
Ulnar (medial aspect)

For both anterior and posterior compartment muscles

234
Q

Which bone found in the forearm makes forms the wrist joint?

A

Radius predominately

235
Q

List the 5 groups of hand muscles which lie which one of the 5 compartments of the hand.

A 
Hypothenar muscles
Thenar muscles
Adductor pollicis
Lumbricals
Interossei
236
Q

What action do interosseous muscles have?

A

Dorsal interossei - abduction at MCP joints

Palmar interossei - adduction at MCP joints

BOTH - Flexion of the MCP joint (90 degrees), Extension at PIP and DIP joints (30 degrees of motion)

237
Q

What is the action of lumbricals?

A

The lumbrical muscles, with the help of the interosseous muscles, simultaneously flex the MCP joints while extending both interphalangeal joints of the digit on which it inserts.

238
Q

Action of the dorsal interossei of the hand.

A

Abduct the index, middle, and ring fingers away from hand’s midline

239
Q

Action of the palmar interossei muscle.

A

Adductor fingers towards hand’s midline.

240
Q

How many dorsal and palmar interossei muscles are there?

A

4 dorsal - bipennate

3 palmar - unipennate

241
Q

Which are smaller, the dorsal or palmar interossei muscles?

A

Palmar interossei muscles are smaller than the dorsal interossei of the hand.

242
Q

Which nerve innervates muscles of the hand?

A

Hypothenar muscles - ulnar n.

Thenar muscles - median n.

Adductor pollicis - ulnar n.

Lumbricals - lateral 2 supplied by median n., medial 2 supplied by ulnar n.

Interossei - ulnar n.

243
Q

Name the 3 thenar muscles

A

Abductor pollicis brevis (note NOT ADDuctor)
Flexor pollicis brevis
Opponens pollicis

244
Q

Name the 4 hypothenar muscles

A

Palmaris
Opponens digiti minimi of hand
Flexor digiti minimi of hand
Abductor digiti minimi of hand

245
Q

Function of thenar and hypothenar muscles.

A

Thenar - movements of thumb (pollicis) mainly

Hypothenar - movements of little finger (digiti minimi) predominantly

246
Q

Name the 2 arteries which are made up of an anastomosis between the radial and ulnar arteries.

A

Superficial and deep palmar arch’s

247
Q

Which nerve supplies the thenar eminence and can be compressed in carpal tunnel?

A

Median nerve

248
Q

Which nerve supplies all the muscles of the posterior arm and forearm (extensors)?

A

Radial nerve

249
Q

Which 2 cords come together to form the median nerve?

A

Lateral and medial

250
Q

From which cord does the ulnar nerve come off?

A

Medial cord

251
Q

Which nerve arises from the lateral cord?

A

Musculocutaneous nerve (supplies anterior arm compartment muscles (flexor muscles of arm))

252
Q

What does the median nerve supply?

A

Flexor muscles of the forearm

253
Q

What is the articulation of the ilium, ischium and pubic known as?

A

Acetabulum

254
Q

What does the external iliac artery and its branches supply?

A

Lower limb, external genitalia and anterolateral abdominal wall

255
Q

What is the femoral artery a distal continuation of?

Where does this divide occur?

A

The external iliac artery

Occurs after it passes deep to the midpoint of the inguinal ligament

256
Q

Which artery gives of a medial and lateral circumflex femoral artery?

A

Deep femoral artery (aka profunda femoris)

257
Q

Where do the retinacular arteries which supply the head of the femur arise from?

A

Trochanteric anastomosis

258
Q

Which arteries form the trochanteric anastomosis (which supplies retinacular arteries)

A

Formed by the combination of the:

  • ascending branch of medial circumflex femoral artery
  • ascending branch of lateral circumflex fmemoral artery
  • branches of the gluteal arteries
259
Q

Which arteries supply the head of the femur?

A

Retinacular arteries which come from the medial and lateral circumflex arteries anastomoses

Acetabular artery

260
Q

When can avascular necrosis of the femoral head occur?

A

Fracture of the neck of the femur (intracapsular) leadinging to damage to retinacular arteries and insufficient blood supply leading to death of the bone

261
Q

How many compartments does the upper and lower limbs have in total?

A

UL - 4

LL - 6

262
Q

Name the compartments of the thigh

A

Anterior
Medial
Posterior

But also has lateral muscles

263
Q

What are the borders of the femoral triangle?

A

Superiorly - inguinal ligament
Medially - adductor longus
Laterally - sartorius

264
Q

Lateral to medial what are the structures that pass within the femoral triangle.

A

NAVEL acronym

Femoral:

  • Nerve
  • Artery
  • Vein
  • Empty space (allows veins and lymph vessels to distend when they cope with different evels of flow)
  • Lymph canal
265
Q

What does the femoral canal contain?

A

Deep lymph nodes and vessels

266
Q

Which artery is located superficially within the femoral triangle?

A

FEmoral artery

267
Q

What happens when part of the bowel pushes into the femoral canal, underneath the inguinal ligament?

A

Femoral hernia

This manifests clinically as a lump or bulge in the area of the femoral triangle

Treatment = surgical intervention usually

268
Q

Where does the great saphenous vein drain into?

A

FEmoral vein

269
Q

Which compartment does the femoral nerve innervate?

A

Anterior compartment of the thigh

270
Q

What is the main artery of the LL?

A

Femoral artery which is a continuation of the external iliac artery (which is the terminal branch of the abdominal aorta)

271
Q

Name the 3 main branches of the profunda femoris artery.

A

Perforating branches that perforate the adductor magnus, contributing to supply of medial and posterior thigh muscles

Lateral femoral circumflex

Medial femoral circumflex

272
Q

Which artery wraps round the anterior, lateral side of the femur?

A

Lateral femoral circumflex artery

273
Q

Which artery supplies some of the muscles on the lateral aspect of the thigh and is a branch of the profunda femoris artery?

A

Lateral femoral circumflex artery

274
Q

Which artery wraps around the posterior side of the femur and supplies the femoral neck and head?

A

MEDIAL demoral circumflex artery

275
Q

What does the adductor canal contain?

A

It’s a tunnel where the femoral artery continues down the anterior surface of the thigh via,after exiting the femoral triangle.

276
Q

Name given to where the adductor canal ends.

A

Adductor hiatus

277
Q

Once the femoral artery moves through the adductor hiatus opening, where does it go?

What is it known as after this passage?

A

Enters the posterior compartment of the thigh, proximal to the knee

And becomes known as the popliteal artery

278
Q

Where does the obturator artery arise from?

A

Internal iliac artery in the pelvic region

279
Q

Where does the obturator artery descend to via the obturator canal?

A

Medial thigh where it bifurcates into an anterior and posterior branch.

280
Q

The gluteal region is largely supplied by which arteries?

A

Superior and inferior gluteal arteries

281
Q

Where do the superior and inferior gluteal arteries arise from?

Where do they enter the gluteal region?

A

Internal iliac artery

Enter gluteal region via greater sciatic foramen

282
Q

The deep and superficial veins of the lower limb mirrors what?

A

Deep = mirrors arteries of the lower limb

Superficial = comprised of sapneous vessels that do not mirror arteries

283
Q

Where do the short saphenous veins run along?

A

Posterior aspect of calf

284
Q

Where do the short saphenous veins run along?

A

Starts anterior to medial malleolus and runs up medial aspect of limb up until saphenofemoral junction (medial aspect of upper thigh)

285
Q

Which vessels allow communication between the superficial saphenous veins and the deep veins of the lower limb?

A

Perforating vessels

286
Q

What are the nerve roots supplying the lumbosacral plexus?

A

L1-S4

287
Q

Name the hip abductors

A

Gluteus medius
Gluteus minimus
Tensor fascia latae

288
Q

Neurovasculature of hip abductors

A

Superior gluteal nerve and artery

Except

289
Q

Action of gluteus maximus

A

Hip extensor

290
Q

Which nerve supplies the gluteus maximus?

A

Inferior gluteal nerve

291
Q

Which thigh compartment contains hip adductors?

A

Medial compartment

292
Q

Name the hip adductors (medial compartment muscles).

What is their innervation and vascular supply?

A

Adductor longus
Adductor magnus
Adductor brevis
Gracilis

Obturator nerve
Profunda femoris

293
Q

Which of the following medial thigh compartment muscles is the most medial?

Adductor longus
Adductor magnus
Adductor brevis
Gracilis

A

Gracilis

294
Q

Name the muscles in the anterior compartment of the thigh and their innervation and arterial supply.

A

Vastus medialis
Vastus lateralis
Vastus intermedius (deep)
Rectus femoris

Sartorius * - external hip rotation mainly, hip and knee extension also

  • Femoral nerve
  • Profunda femoris artery (same as medial compartment)
295
Q

Action of the anterior thigh compartment muscles

A

Quadriceps (Vastus medialis, Vastus lateralis, Vastus intermedius, Rectus femoris) extensors of knee

296
Q

Longest muscle of the body?

A

Sartorius which lies in the anterior compartment

297
Q

What is the innervation and vascular supply of the posterior compartment muscles?

A

Sciatic nerve

Profunda femoris

298
Q

Which muscles make up the posterior compartment of the thigh?

A

Semimembranosus
Semitendinosus
Biceps femoris

299
Q

The knee joint is formed by an articulation between the _ and _?

A

Femur
TIbial plateau

Fibia doesn’t play a significant role in the knee joint but it’s where the lateral collateral ligament inserts

300
Q

Name the ligaments of the knee

A

Lateral collateral ligament
Medial collateral ligament
Anterior cruciate ligament
Posterior cruciate ligament

301
Q

Which ligaments sit inside the capsule of the knee?

A

Anterior cruciate ligament

Posterior cruciate ligament

302
Q

Where does the anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments insert on the tibial plateau?

A

Anterior cruciate ligament - inserts anterior on tibial plateau

Posterior cruciate ligament - inserts posterior upon tibial plateau

303
Q

Which movement does the anterior and posterior cruciate ligaments prevent?

A

Anterior cruciate ligament - prevents anterior movement of the tibial upon the femur

Posterior cruciate ligament - prevents posterior movement of the tibial upon the femur

304
Q

Name the bursae of the knee.

A

Pre-patellar
Suprapatellar
Infrapatellar
Popliteal

305
Q

A lateral blow to the knee, particularly with foot fixed on ground can cause the unhappy triad of injury to what?

A

Anterior cruciate ligament
Medial collateral ligament
Medial meniscus

306
Q

Generally which thigh compartment muscles are: knee extensors, knee flexors, hip adductors?

A

Knee extensors - anterior
Knee flexors - posterior
Hip adductors - medial

307
Q

Where are short saphenous veins found?

A

Below knee only

308
Q

Where are long saphenous veins found?

A

Above knee, medially

309
Q

What does the popliteal artery become distally?

A

Anterior tibial –> dorsalis pedis

Posterior tibial

310
Q

Which artery gives off the popliteal artery?

A

Superficial femoral which is a branch of the femoral artery

311
Q

What does the sciatic nerve divide into in the popliteal fossa?

A
  • Common peroneal nerve (anterior and lateral compartments, foot extensors)
  • Tibial nerve (posterior leg compartment, foot flexors)
312
Q

Which nerve supplies the posterior leg compartment and foot flexor muscles?

A

Tibial nerve

313
Q

Which nerve supplies the anterior leg compartment and foot extensor muscles?

A

Deep peroneal nerve (from common peroneal nerve)

314
Q

Which nerve supplies the lateral le compartment?

A

Superficial peroneal (from common peroneal nerve, which is from sciatic nerve)

315
Q

Which leg compartment muscles is responsible for eversion?

A

Lateral compartment

316
Q

Which nerve supplies foot dorsiflexors?

A

Deep peroneal nerve (which supplies anterior leg compartment)

317
Q

Muscles in the anterior leg compartment

A

Tibialis anterior
Extensor hallucis longus
Extensor digitorum longus

318
Q

Muscles in the lateral leg compartment

A

Peroneus longus

Peroneus brevis

319
Q

Muscles in the posterior leg compartment

A

Deep (toe flexion)

  • Tibialis posterior
  • Flexor hallucis longus
  • Flexor digitorum longus

Superficial (ankle flexion)

  • Gastrocnemius
  • Soleus
320
Q

Which arteries supply the leg?

A

Anterior and posterior tibial arteries which as branches of the popliteal artery

321
Q

What happens at the sapheno-popliteal junction?

A

The short saphenous vein joints with the popliteal vein (which continues to become the femoral vein)

322
Q

What is another name for common peroneal nerve?

A

Common fibular nerve

323
Q

Posterior thigh muscles are known as what?

A

Hamstrings (knee flexor)

324
Q

Posterior thigh muscles are known as what?

A

Hamstrings (knee flexor)

325
Q

Which nerves innervate the anterior, medial and posterior thigh compartments?

A

Anterior (quadriceps) - femoral
Medial (hip adductors) - obturator
Posterior (hamstrings) - sciatic

326
Q

Which muscles make up hamstrings?

A

From medial to lateral:

  • Semimembranosus
  • Semitendinosus
  • Biceps femoris
327
Q

When the trunk is fixed and when knee is bent what action does the hamstring muscles have?

A

Semitendinosus and semimembranosus - extend the hip when the trunk is fixed

Semitendinosus and semimembranosus - also flex the knee and medially (inwardly) rotate the lower leg when the knee is bent

Biceps femoris - flex knee and laterally rotate the leg when the knee is bent

328
Q

From superficial to deep list the components of the anterior abdominal wall.

A 
Skin
Adipose
Superficial fascia
Abdominal wall muscles
- External oblique
- Internal oblique
- Transversus abdominis
Deep fascia
Extraperitoneal fat
Parietal peritoneum
329
Q

Which direction does external oblique muscle fibres run in?

A

Hands in pockets direction

inferiorly and medially

330
Q

Where is the arcuate line?

A

Halfway between umbilicus and pubic symphisis

331
Q

Which muscles are at 90 degrees to external oblique muscles

A

Internal oblique

From iliac crest –> midline and ribs
superiorly and medially

332
Q

What divides the rectus abdominis muscle into 8 sections?

A

Aponeuroses (flat, thin tendons)

  • Central vertical band
  • 3 horizontal bands
333
Q

Where do abdominal wall muscles insert?

A

Linea alba

334
Q

What is the anterior triangle of the neck bordered by?

A

Midline
Sternocleidomastoid
Mandible

335
Q

What is the posterior triangle of the neck bordered by?

A

Trapezius
Sternocleidomastoid
Clavicle

336
Q

List the types of neurons.

A

Multipolar (interneuron)

Bipolar (retina has bipolar cells, which have a cell body with 2 axon like processes - technically the bipolar cells in the retina are not neurons)

Pseudounipolar (1st sensory afferent)

Unipolar (UMN)

337
Q

Schwann cells lie within what?

A

Endoneurium

338
Q

What are schwann cells and what are they responsible for?

A

Peripheral glial cells responsible for myelination

339
Q

Each schwann cell myelinates how many neurones?

A

1

340
Q

How many schwann cells myelinate/associate one myelinated and unmyelinated neuron?

A

Many schwann cells myelinate each myelinated neuron

One schwann cell is associated with many unmyelinated neurones

341
Q

What are the types of peripheral nerves?

A

A-alpha
A-beta
A-delta
C

342
Q

What is the largest and thicken peripheral nerve type?

A

A-alpha

They tend to be LMNs

343
Q

What are the functions of the following types of peripheral nerves:

  • A-alpha
  • A-beta
  • A-gamma
  • A-delta
  • C
A

A-alpha (proprioception + motor)

A-beta (proprioception + form muscle spindles)

A-delta (sensory only normally, pain and other sensation)

C (pain)

344
Q

What is the resting membrane potential in a neurone?

What is it determined by?

A

-65mV

Determined by passive movements of ions (leak channels)

345
Q

What is absolute refractory periods?

A

Insufficient channels

- Fast sodium ion channels in refractive state therefore no AP regardless of stimulus intensity

346
Q

What is relative refractory periods?

A

Some fast sodium ion channels available therefore AP possible with large stimulus

347
Q

What does increasing neuron diameter do to speed of conduction?

A

Reduces resistance nad incerases speed

348
Q

What does myelination do to speed of nerve impulse conduction?

A

Myelination allows conduction jumps between myelin (saltatory conduction) at nodes of Ranvier

Unmyelinated neurons are much smaller

349
Q

What is depolarisation due to?

A

Opening of fast voltage-gated Na+ channels

350
Q

What is repolarisation due to?

A

K+ exit

351
Q

What does the refractory period ensure?

A

Unidirectional propagation

352
Q

How many connexin proteins form 1 connexon?

A

6

353
Q

Gap junctions (electrical synapses) are formed by what?

A

Connexons (hydrophilic channels)

Which allow small (charged) molecules to be transferred between 2 cells

354
Q

Where are gap junctions found?

A

Cardiac muscles and smooth muscle where contractions spread throughout the muscle so they contract synchronously

355
Q

Where are chemical synapses found?

A

Between 1 neuron and another neurone or a tissue (e.g. motor end plate of a muscle)

356
Q

When an AP arrives at the presynaptic neuron, the membrane depolarises. What happens lead to a change in the post-synaptic neurone?

A

Activates voltage-gated channel (e.g. calcium channel)

Calcium enters the pre-synaptic neuron and causes fusion of the neurosecretory vesicles containing neurotransmitter with the membrane and release of the neurotransmitter

NT diffuses across the synaptic cleft passively

This causes some change in the post synaptic neurone (excitatory, inhibitory) - post synaptic potential

The neurotransmitter is taken up into post or pre-synaptic receptor or broken down via enzymes in the cleft –> action of the chemical synapse is terminated

357
Q

What is summation?

A

Cumulative action or effect.

The process by which a sequence of stimuli that are individually inadequate to produce a response are cumulatively able to induce a nerve impulse

358
Q

What does excitatory refer to in a chemical synapse?

A

Causes depolarisation in post-synaptic neuron

359
Q

What does inhibitory refer to in a chemical synapse?

A

Causes hyperpolarisation in post-synaptic neuron

360
Q

What are local anaesthetics?

A

Drugs that can cause reversible block a nerve conduction without loss of consciousness by intracellular inhibition of. voltage-gated sodium channels

361
Q

Which nerves do local anaesthetics favour?

A

Small neurones better blocked that larger neurones

Therefore affect A-delta and C fibres preferentially (pain sensation carriers)

362
Q

Why are local anaesthetics given with adrenaline sometimes?

A

Because adrenaline causes vasoconstriction which increases duration of local anaesthetic action

363
Q

Difference between peripheral muscle reflex and polysynaptic reflex?

A

Peripheral muscle reflexes (patellar reflex, achilles reflex) = brief stimulation to the muscle spindle results in contraction of the agonist or effector muscle.

Polysynaptic reflex pathways - one or more interneurons connect afferent (sensory) and efferent (motor) signals.

364
Q

Difference between monosynaptic and polysynaptic reflex?

A

Monosynaptic reflexes involve only one central synapse in the spinal cord grey matter, between the afferent and the efferent neurons. E.g. muscle spindle –> muscle contraction

Polysynaptic reflexes involve two to several synapses involving one or more interneurons. E.g. golgi tendon –> muscle relaxation

365
Q

Which reflexes does the following describe?

Stimulus –> receptor –> afferent neurone –> efferent neurone –> effector

A

Neuronal reflex - an involuntary response of the CNS that is stereotyped, has a specific input and rapid output

366
Q

The muscle spindle detects what?

A

Unexpected stretch of muscle which leads to muscle contraction

367
Q

When the non-contractile part of a muscle fibre is stretched (unexpected stretch), what does this cause?

A

Activation of the 1a sensory neurone which runs via monosynaptic reflex through spinal cord to activate lower motor neurone (effector) leading to muscle contraction

E.g. tendon jerk reflex

368
Q

What is the golgi tendon organ formed of?

A

Nerve fibres that sit within tendons

369
Q

When a muscle contracts the force of it’s tendon increases and is detected by the golgi tendon organs.

What does activation of the golgi tendon organ lead to?

A

Which leads to activation of the afferent neurone which passes to inhibitory interneuron which passes down lower motor neurone and causes muscle relaxation

370
Q

Which channels to local anaesthetics inhibit?

A

Inhibit fast voltage-gated sodium channels intracellularly

371
Q

What is fast, involuntary and has a specific afferent and efferent limb?

A

A reflex

372
Q

What are muscle spindles responsible for?

A

Tendon jerk reflex

373
Q

Are pre-ganglionic neurones of the autonomic nervous system myelinated or unmyelinated?

A

myelinated

374
Q

Are post-ganglionic neurones of the autonomic nervous system myelinated or unmyelinated?

A

unmyelinated

375
Q

The synapse between a pre and post ganglionic neurone in the autonomic nervous system is mediated by what type of receptor?

In both parasympathetic and sympathetic nervous systems

A

Nicotinic-ACh-receptor

376
Q

Where does the cell body of the pre-synaptic ganglion lie?

A

Lateral horn of T1-L2

377
Q

Where does the cell body of the post-synaptic ganglion lie?

A

Sympathetic chain or peripheal ganglion

378
Q

What is the sympathetic chian?

A

Multiple interconected ganglia on posterior wall of thorax and abdomen

379
Q

What are splanchnic nerves?

A

The splanchnic nerves are paired visceral nerves (nerves that contribute to the innervation of the internal organs), carrying fibers of the autonomic nervous system (visceral efferent fibers) as well as sensory fibers from the organs (visceral afferent fibers).

380
Q

What does the coeliac ganglion supply?

A

Foregut

381
Q

What does the superior mesenteric ganglion supply?

A

Midgut

382
Q

What does the inferior mesenteric ganglion supply?

A

Hindgut

383
Q

What does the renal plexus and aorticorenal ganglion supply?

A

Kidneys, adrenals, joints with aortic plexus

384
Q

Name the sympathetic splanchnic nerves and their spinal cord levels.

A

Cardiopulmonary splanchnic nerves

Thoracic splanchnic nerves (Greater splanchnic, Lesser splanchnic, Least splanchnic)

Lumbar splanchnic nerve

Sacral splanchnic nerves

385
Q

Name the sympathetic splanchnic nerves.

A

Cardiopulmonary splanchnic nerves

Thoracic splanchnic nerves (Greater splanchnic, Lesser splanchnic, Least splanchnic)

Lumbar splanchnic nerve

Sacral splanchnic nerves

386
Q

Where does the greater splanchnic nerve originate?

A

T5-T9

387
Q

Where does the lesser splanchnic nerve originate?

A

T10-11

388
Q

Where does the least splanchnic nerve originate?

A

T12

389
Q

Which nerve targets the renal plexus?

A

Least splanchnic nerve (T12)

390
Q

Both NA and A can bind to either adrenoreceptor. Which type of adrenoceptor is A and NA better at binding to?

A

A - No preference

NA - Higher affinity for alpha-adrenoceptors

391
Q

What is the only example where a post-ganglionic sympathetic neurone does not release NA or A?

A

Sweat glands which release ACh which bind to muscarininc receptors to increase sweat production

392
Q

What structure has many myofibres acting together?

A

Muscle fasciculus

393
Q

What is a myofibre also known as?

A

Muscle cell

394
Q

How many fibrils are in one myofibre?

A

Many

395
Q

Contractile proteins are also called what?

A

Myofilaments

396
Q

Many filaments make what?

A

A myofibril

397
Q

What is the borders of one sarcomere?

A

Distance between 2 z lines

398
Q

Which filaments are found at the M-line and Z-line?

A

Myosin only on M-line

Actin (thin filaments) on Z line

399
Q

Contraction of a sarcomere shortens which bands?

A

Only the I-band

A-band stays same

400
Q

Actin, tropomyosin and troponin are all examples what what?

A

Thin filaments

Myosin is the only thick filament in muscles

401
Q

What sits in actin grooves and have myosin binding sites?

A

Tropomyosin

402
Q

What are type I skeletal muscles usually used for?

A

Long periods of activity of low intensity

E.g. postural muscles have high amounts of type I fibres

403
Q

What are type II skeletal muscles usually used for?

A

Fast, high intensity, short duration of time before fatigued

404
Q

Which type of skeletal muscle type has high myoglobin and is aerobic?

A

Type I

Type II has anaerobic, and low myoglobin

405
Q

What determines the type of skeletal muscle fibres?

A

The LMN innervating them (they are either type I or type II)

The activity of the LMN affects the ATPase of the muscle which determines the speed and rate t which the muscle can contract and use energy

406
Q

In a muscle filament, the loss of P causes what action?

A

Power stroke

407
Q

ATP binding in a muscle filament causes what?

A

Breaking of the cross bridges

408
Q

What do osteoblasts secrete?

A

Osteoid which are mineralised with hydroxyapatite

409
Q

Which cells resorb bones?

A

Osteoclasts - large multinulcleate cells

410
Q

What does the endosteum cover?

A

Surface of bone

411
Q

What is the shaft of a. long bone also known as?

A

DIaphysis

412
Q

What is the end of a long bone also known as?

A

Epiphysis

413
Q

What is. the physis region of the long bone also known as?

A

Growth plate

414
Q

What is a condyle?

A

Articular surface

415
Q

What is an epicondye

A

Projection adjacent to a condyle

416
Q

What are trochanters?

A

Large tuberosities

417
Q

What is lamellar bone formed of?

A

Outer compact bone with innr cancellous bone

121 (11 decks)

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