12.2 What are the opportunities and threats arising from the use of ocean resources?

Question 1

What opportunities arise from the use of ocean resources?

Answer 1

Advances in technology allow for more intensive use of biological resources such as fish and previously unused resources like krill.

Question 2

What threats arise from the use of ocean resources?

Answer 2

Exploitation of ocean resources brings challenges, especially as damage from past exploitation becomes evident.

Question 3

What is natural capital?

Answer 3

Natural capital is anything that comes from natural resources with a value to humans eg. fish

Question 4

What is natural income?

Answer 4

This comes from natural capital.

Question 5

What are provisioning services?

Answer 5

Provisioning services are direct products of ecosystems, such as food.

Question 6

What are regulating services?

Answer 6

Regulating services provide benefits from natural regulation, such as CO2 management.

Question 7

What are cultural services?

Answer 7

Cultural services are non-material benefits obtained from natural systems, like swimming or enjoying scenery.

Question 8

What are supporting services?

Answer 8

Supporting services are ecosystem processes that support other services, such as nutrient cycling.

Inuit indigenous people disagree with all these services.

Question 9

What is the significance of krill in the Antarctic ecosystem?

Answer 9

Krill are crucial as they are the main agent of energy transfer in the Southern Ocean food webs, supporting seabirds and marine mammals.

379 million tonnes of biomass of krill in ocean.

150000-200000 tonnes annually fished.

Rich in protein, used in medicines.

Good store of carbon- feed on phytoplankton and consume CO2- carbon sink. When they die they sink to sea bed and produce many nutrients- these are upwelled to the surface.

Question 10

What has been the impact of commercial harvesting on krill populations?

Answer 10

Commercial harvesting began in the early 1970s and has raised concerns about sustainability and potential declines in krill stocks. There has been an 80% decrease in stocks since 1970’s.

 China plans a x7 expansion in the total annual catch and also has the largest krill fishing fleet.
 Subsidies from governments- fuels the fire for overfishing- beyond a tipping point.

Large industrial fishing boats from China, Japan, Norway, Russia and Ukraine- biggest problems.

Question 11

Why is China an issue for krill?

Answer 11

The country plans a x7 increase in TAC’s. It has the largest krill fishing fleet.

Question 12

A02 for krill:

Answer 12

No LIDC’s are harvesting krill as they do not have the funds for the machinery. Krill are not viewed as an essential species- neglect from general public.

If the TAC were to be increased the fishing of krill would have to be spread over a larger area and not highly concentrated- spatial- avoid overfishing. However, this would make the fishing not economically viable.

The issue of nautical miles- EEZ within 200 nautical miles- global commons- short term gain.

Hard to manage on a global scale, only locally.

Question 13

What is the role of CCAMLR?

Answer 13

The Commission for the Conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR) monitors and regulates commercial interests in krill.

o Largest krill fishery targets Antarctic Krill in southern ocean- managed by The commission of the conservation of Antarctic Marine Living Resources (CCAMLR)- 25 states- mostly AC’s- spatial.
 No LIDCs fish krill or are part of the CCAMLR
 They are trying to determine catch limits but is contested- tragedy of commons.
 Now there is a total allowable catch (TAC) (to maintain healthy breeding population- sustainable)- currently set at 620,000 tonnes per year- 1% of krill stocks. If this was to increase- it would lead to unsustainable overfishing in concentration within certain areas.
 “the risk of changes in the marine ecosystem which are not potentially reversible over two or three decades” has to be limited.

Question 14

What is the current total allowable catch (TAC) for krill?

Answer 14

The TAC is set at 620,000 tonnes per year to maintain healthy krill populations.

Question 15

What are the positive impacts of oil and gas exploitation?

Answer 15

Positive impacts include raw materials for various products, wealth creation, and employment opportunities.

Question 16

What are the negative impacts of oil and gas exploitation?

Answer 16

Negative impacts include ecosystem disturbance, pollution, and contribution to greenhouse gases.

Question 17

What is the significance of the Gulf of Mexico for oil and gas production?

Answer 17

The Gulf of Mexico is a key region for oil and gas production, with extensive offshore drilling operations.

40000km active pipelines. Almost 1.2 of oil and gas operations take place here- concentrated- spatial issue. 97% of US oil and gas. Variation in prices determines extraction.

BUT- Deepwater Horiozon oil spill

Question 18

What is tidal energy?

Answer 18

Tidal energy utilizes the flow of water with the rise and fall of tides to generate electricity.

Question 19

What is the Shiwa Lake scheme?

Answer 19

Shiwa Lake is the world’s largest tidal power station, generating 254 MW of power at its maximum output.

Question 20

What was the planned Swansea Bay tidal lagoon project?

Answer 20

The Swansea Bay project aimed to generate 320 MW of power using a tidal lagoon, enough for about 155,000 homes.

Question 21

What was the estimated cost of the Swansea Bay scheme?

Answer 21

The estimated cost was put at £1 billion (2015 prices).

Question 22

What are the advantages of the Swansea Bay scheme?

Answer 22

The Swansea scheme had several advantages, including being a renewable flow energy source and generating electricity for 16 hours in every 24 hours.

Question 23

What is the estimated working life of the Swansea Bay scheme?

Answer 23

It had an estimated working life of 120 years.

Question 24

What were some concerns regarding the Swansea Bay scheme?

Answer 24

Concerns included sediment movements, water quality, the marine ecosystem, local inshore fisheries, and environmental impacts in Cornwall.

Question 25

What was the controversy surrounding the cost of electricity generated by the Swansea Bay scheme?

Answer 25

Subsidies would have been needed, similar to those for wind and solar power, affecting the economic viability of the scheme.

Question 26

What is wave energy?

Answer 26

Wave energy is the conversion of the rise and fall of water associated with waves into energy.

Question 27

What are some challenges of wave energy technology?

Answer 27

Challenges include high initial capital costs, unpredictability of waves, environmental disruption, and high maintenance costs.

Question 28

What is CETO technology?

Answer 28

CETO uses several buoys linked to hydraulic cylinders to generate electricity from wave movements.

Question 29

What has reignited interest in sea-floor mining?

Answer 29

Increases in prices of minerals like gold, silver, and copper, as well as the demand for Rare Earth Elements, have reignited interest.

Question 30

What is the geopolitical concern regarding Rare Earth Elements?

Answer 30

The production of Rare Earth Elements is dominated by China, raising concerns for the USA, Japan, and the EU about reliance on a single source.

Question 31

What is the role of the International Seabed Authority?

Answer 31

It was created to oversee the exploitation of sea-bed resources in the ocean.

Question 32

What is the purpose of marine reserves?

Answer 32

Marine reserves aim to protect marine habitats and ecosystems for present and future generations.

Question 33

What commitment did members of the International Convention on Biological Diversity make in 2010?

Answer 33

They committed to establishing 10 percent of the oceans as Marine Protected Areas (MPA) by 2020.

Question 34

What is the Chagos Marine Reserve?

Answer 34

The Chagos Marine Reserve is a no-take marine protected area designated by the UK, covering over 640,000 km².

Question 35

What legal disputes surround the Chagos Archipelago?

Answer 35

Sovereignty is disputed between Mauritius and the UK, with rulings stating the UK acted illegally in retaining control.

Question 36

Why is the artic so important?

Answer 36

It is a highly contested area, being an EEZ (economic exclusive zone) and shallow- easy access for drilling.

2007- Russian placed a flag at the seabed of the North Pole. Russia owns 24,000km of coastline and more than half of the north pole area. This allows a gain in nautical miles.

Question 39

What is the tragedy of commons?

Answer 39

o People become selfish when they have their own self-interest at heart
o Pit short term self-interest against common good of others- 1968

Question 40

What is the notion of the global commons?

Answer 40

o The commons are large resource pools which are not owned by nations and used by everyone.
o The atmosphere, oceans, polar regions (Antarctica and much of Artic Ocean) and outer space are examples.

Question 41

What is the importance of sea floor mining?

Answer 41

• Zimbabwe, Democratic republic of Congo and Chile- Copper, coltan and cobalt.
  
  • Ferrous (iron) and non-Ferrous (non-iron) sea-bed materials
  • Clarion Clipperton Zone (750,000 km2- over the size of Ireland)- In the pacific ocean and is a zone which is allowed to undergo sea-floor mining- first place. High abundance of polymetallic nodules- metals (size of grapefruit), can be easily mined. Has a yield of $20 billion dollars of metals.
    US initially claimed the CCZ, however claims are now more international- many countries and very contentious.

Question 42

What is UNCLOS?

Answer 42

• The UNCLOS is the international treaty that governs EEZ (exclusive economic zone)
  The united nations convention on the law of the sea.
  When two countries are less than 400 nautical miles away they have to settle it between themselves.
  Tries to manage common resources

Question 43

What is deep sea mining?

Answer 43

• Usually take place near large areas of hydrothermal vents and polymetallic nodules- 1400 to 3700 metres.
  The vents create globular or massive sulphide deposits, which contain valuable metals:
  ○ Silver
  ○ Gold
  ○ Copper- Chile dominates 30%
  ○ Manganese- South Africa controls 80%
  ○ Cobalt- Dominated by Democratic republic of Congo- 47%
  ○ Zinc
  ○ Rare earth metals- China controls 95%

Question 44

What is the ISA?

Answer 44

The international sea bed authority looks after international waters and deep sea mining. The ISA requires nations interested in mining to explore two equal mining sites and turn one over to the ISA, along with a transfer of mining technology over a 10-20 year period.

Question 45

What is the IWC?

Answer 45

The international whaling commission sets limits for cultural whaling.
○ Hard to control Inuit’s (Canada, Russia and USA)- cultural, is traditional. (however is small numbers).
○ Norway and Japan have commercial whaling.
Ban on commercial whaling- 1982.

Question 46

What is CITES?

Answer 46

Convention of the international trade in endangered species. International agreement (1975), currently 183 countries have signed up. These countries are legally obliged to implement the convention in their own countries.

Question 47

What is MARPOL?

Answer 47

International convention for the prevention of pollution from ships.
○ Bans dumping of waste and release of pollution
○ Since 2005 has included regulating air pollution from ships
○ Some groups of countries (EU), have supra-national fisheries policies but these are not widespread or effective.
○ Venice recently banned cruise ships (2013)

Question 48

What are marine protected areas?

Answer 48

○ Protected areas of seas and oceans, estuaries or large lakes.
○ Essentially are national parks of the sea- human activity is restricted in this area.
○ 2010- decided to establish 10% of the oceans as MPA’s by 2020- but only likely by 2100 and for it to be successful 20-30% of ocean needs to be MPA.
○ This is harder to achieve in countries which are primary sector based and have a poor government- economic, as well as when the contiguous zone overlaps with other countries.