12.12.27Flashcardlet_20121228015736

Question 1

LMX - leader member exchangeDescription

Answer 1

Leadership theory; a contingency theoryDescription: the role-making processes between a leader and each individual subordinate that develops over time(vertical dyad linkage theory)

Question 2

LMXMeasurement

Answer 2

LMX-7 (Graen & Uhl-Bien, 1995)Measures level of factors in the exchange/relationship between leader and subordinate

Question 3

LMXFactors

Answer 3

mutual trust, respect, affection, support, and loyalty

Question 4

LMXKey theorists

Answer 4

Original Theorist: Graen & Cashman (1975); Dansereau, Graen, and Uhl-Bien (1975)Revision: Graen & Scandura (1987) - life cycle model: (a) initial testing phase - eval one another’s motives, attitudes, and potential rsources exchanged(b) refining stage - mutual trust, loyalty, and respect developed(c) mature phase - mutual commitment to mission (equivalent to transformational leadership)

Question 5

Acquired needs theory

Answer 5

Acquired needs theory - McClelland’s (1975)Need for achievementNeed for affiliationNeed for power ​Learned from environmentHigh-order needs start with belongingness/relatedness etc.

Question 6

Equity Theory

Answer 6

Equity Theory –(Adams, 1965)perceptions of fair treatment. Individual’s motivation level is correlated to his perception of equity, fairness and justice practiced by the management. Higher individual’s perception of fairness, greater is the motivation level and vice versa.

Question 7

Expectancy Theory

Answer 7

Expectancy Theory (VROOM 1964) ​Based on employee perceptions: that harder work gives better results, get desirable rewards1. Valence (strength of desire of rewards) – extrinsic or intrinsic; management has to be sure to see what people value​​​2. Instrumentality – perception that better performance will get Reward (based on trustworthiness, communication by management)​​​3. Expectancy – harder work will give better performance d​​​​epends on resources, training courses, etc.​​

Question 8

ERG theory

Answer 8

Alderfer’s ERG theory (1972)

1. Existence – air, food, water, pay, work conditions
2. Relatedness – social/interpersonal relationships
3. Growth – making contributions

Question 9

Attribution theory

Answer 9

(Green & Mitchell, 1979) 2 stage model: diagnosis (attribute), correctionTend to attribute poor performance externally when we like someone, internally for low performers.

Question 10

Two-factor theory of motivation

Answer 10

Herzberg’s two-factor theory of motivation (job satisfaction) (1959)​Dissatisfiers-satisfiers, Hygiene-motivators

Question 11

AuthenticityRIBS

Answer 11

Authenticity - Walumbwa et al (2008)1) balanced processing,2) self-awareness,3) an internalized moral perspective4) relational transparency,Authenticity (Kernis & Goldman, 2006)1. Unbiased processing2. Self-awareness3. Coherent behavior4. Relational orientation RIBSRelational transparencyInternalized moral perspectivesBalanced processesSelf-awareness

Question 12

Power Taxonomy

Answer 12

Power Taxonomy,
French and Raven(1959)
1 Reward Power – to get reward
2 Coercive power – to avoid punishment
3 Legitimate – because agent has right to make the request
4 Expert power – agent has special knowledge
5 Referent power – target admires/identifies with agent, wants approval

Question 13

Conflict style or conflict mode instrument

Answer 13

Thomas Kilmann instrument (1976) ​Competition- win-loseCollaboration - win-winCompromise - lose-winAvoidance - lose-loseAccommodation lose- win

Question 14

Hierarchy of needs

Answer 14

Maslow (1943)

1. Physiological needs
2. Safety-security
3. Belongingness, social, love
4. Esteem
5. Self-actualization

Question 15

FollowershipTheoristsTypes of followersCourageous behaviors

Answer 15

Robert Kelley (1988) In praise of followersFollower types: CAPEConformistAlienatedPassiveExemplaryIra Chaleff (1995). The courage followerCourage follower behaviors:Assumes responsibilityServesChallenges leaderParticipates in transformationTakes moral action

Question 16

Leadership trait approach

Answer 16

A great man theory Innate qualities of the leader, individual attributes”who a leader is”

Question 17

Leadership style approach

Answer 17

A great man theory Emphasizes the behavior of a leader regarding task and relational”What a leader does”

Question 18

Leadership skill approach

Answer 18

A Great Man theory Focus on capabilities and knowledge of leadersTechnical, human, and conceptual skills”What a leader knows”

Question 19

Leadership trait approach

Answer 19

A great man theory Innate qualities of the leader, individual attributes”who a leader is”

Question 20

Leadership style approach

Answer 20

A great man theoryEmphasizes the behavior of a leader regarding task and relational”What a leader does”

Question 21

Leadership skill approach

Answer 21

A Great Man theoryFocus on capabilities and knowledge of leadersTechnical, human, and conceptual skills”What a leader knows”

Question 22

Northouse components of leadership (4)

Answer 22

P.I.G.G. Northouse (2010),1) a process,2) involves influence,3) occurs in groups,4) involves common goals

Question 23

Dimensions of the organization

Answer 23

Dimensions of the organization (Littlejohn & Foss, 2005)1. Organizational structure, form and function2. Management, control and power3. Organizational culture

Question 24

Transformational leadership:- four areas- instrument

Answer 24

I.M. I.S. Burns & BassBurns (1978) first introduced the concept of transforming leadership, “leaders and followers help each other to advance to a higher level of morale and motivation”. established two concepts: “transforming leadership” and “transactional leadership”. Bass (1985), extended the work of Burns, introduced the term “transformational” in place of “transforming.” 1) Individualized consideration: leader attends to each follower’s needs.2) Intellectual Stimulation – the degree to which the leader challenges assumptions and solicits followers’ ideas. encourage creativity in their followers. 2) Inspirational Motivation – leader articulates a vision that is inspiring to followers. 3) Idealized Influence – Provides a role model for high ethical behavior, instills pride, gains respect and trust.When researching transformational and transactional leadership the most frequently used survey is called “the Multifactor Leadership Questionnaire” (MLQ Form 5X).

Question 25

Theory X- author- define

Answer 25

McGregor (1957) Assumes employees are inherently lazy and will avoid work if they can and that they inherently dislike workAs a result management believes workers need to be closely supervised and comprehensive systems of controls developed. A hierarchical structure is needed with narrow span of control at each and every level.

Question 26

Moral Development four component model- Author- Elements

Answer 26

S.C.R.M. Rest et al (1999)Rest el al. (1999) developed a four-component model of moral development and behavior. Rest defines the four elements as follows:o Moral sensitivity: interpretation of the situation, being aware of possible lines of action, and how the action could affect otherso Moral reasoning or judgment: judging which action is morally right or wrong,o Moral motivation: prioritizing moral values ahead of other values, and,o Moral character: the courage and strength to live one’s convictions (p101).

Question 27

Transactional leadership- Author - definition- Approaches

Answer 27

Transactional leadership: Burns (1974) Def: trading rewards/punishments for obedience. Approaches: 1. contingent reward2. passive management by exception (reactive): leaders wait for issues to come up before fixing the problem3. active management by exception: leader looks at each subordinate’s performance, makes changes to the subordinate’s work to make corrections throughout the process

Question 28

Dual concern model / managerial grid

Answer 28

Dual concern model - concern for self, concern for othersManagerial grid model, 9x9 matrix (blake and moulton, 1964)- ​Task - concern for production- ​Relationship - concern for people

Question 29

GLOBE - Nine attributes

Answer 29

House et al (2004)Hofstede (2003) 4/5 Common with : 1) Future Orientation 2) Collective-Ingroup3) Collective-institutional4) Power concentration (distance)5) Uncertainty Avoidance2 related to Hofstede masculine: 6) Assertiveness (masculine)7) gender egalitarianism2 new:8) Humane orientation9) Performance orientation

Question 30

Self-efficacy Researcher (date)Impact on four major human processes

Answer 30

Self-efficacy is the measure of one’s own competence to complete tasks and reach goals. Self-efficacy is distinct both from efficacy and from self-esteem, confidence, and self-concept.SE produces effects of four major human process:cognitive - forethought of goalsmotivation - self-regulationaffective - how much stress and depression experienced in threatening or difficult situations selection - influences the choices of activities and environmentsAlbert Bandura (1997). Self-efficacy: The exercise of control

Question 31

GLOBE Project

Answer 31

Global Leadership and Organizational Behavior Effectiveness(GLOBE) projectRobert House, principal investigator 1990s

Question 32

Spiritual leadership- author- attributes

Answer 32

Fry’s (2003)1) Vision2) Hope/faith3) Altruistic loveStimulates:1) Calling2) Membership

Question 33

Shared Leadership

Answer 33

Shared Leadership (Pearce, 2004)Conditions:1. Interdependence2. Creativity3. Complexity Characteristics1. All team members engage in leadership2. All members don’t hesitate to influence/guide others to maximize team3. Serial emergence of unofficial leaders

Question 34

Spiritual leadership theoryDescription: Spiritual leadership is a category of ethical leadership (Yukl, 2010). “Spiritual leadership describes how leaders can enhance intrinsic motivation of followers by creating conditions that increase their sense of spiritual meaning in the work[place] (Yukl, 2010, p. 342).”Constructs:Transcendence (meaning/calling in the work) andFellowship (sense of belonging and togetherness). Both involve altruistic love and faithContext: Intrinsic motivation, follower productivity, sense-making, workplace spirituality, organizational development / transformationKey Thinkers: Louis Fry, (Delbecg; Duchon & Asmos)Instrument(s):Spiritual Leadership Theory survey (Fry, 2005)

Answer 34

Literature:Fry, L. W. (2003). Toward a theory of spiritual leadership. The Leadership Quarterly, 14, 693–727.Fry, L. W., & Slocum Jr, J. W. (2008). Maximizing the triple bottom line through spiritual leadership. Organizational Dynamics, 37(1), 86-96.Kriger, M., & Seng, Y. (2005). Leadership with inner meaning: A contingency theory of leadership based on the worldviews of five religions. The Leadership Quarterly, 16(5), 771-806.Critiques:Niewold, J. (2007). Beyond servant leadership. Journal of Biblical Perspectives in Leadership, 1(2), 118-134.Controversy over difference between spirituality and religionThe antecedents of what makes a spiritual leader and conditions to produce effects of spiritual leadership are unclear (Yukl, 2010)SignificanceCultural: Surveyed among five major world religionsGlobal: Generic enough to include even atheism/agnosticism Scriptural: Colossians 3: 17 – do everything in the name of the Lord Jesus, giving thanks to God the Father through him

Question 35

Leadership traits and trait theoryResearcher of Origin: R. M. StogdillDefinition: One of first systematic approaches to studying leadership by identifying innate qualities of leaders. These known as “great man’ theories” distinquished between leaders and followers. Stogdill (1948) suggested that traits were important but situations required differing traits for effectiveness. Trait theory continues to be important in thinking about effective leadershipConstructs: (1) intelligence, (2) self-confidence, (3) determination, (4) integrity, and (5) sociability.Context: When is the theory used.Develop self-awareness of leadership traits.Determine strengths and limitations of people for hiring or promotion.Focuses only on traits and not followers or situation (Northouse, 2004)Instrument(s): Myers-Briggs and Leadership Trait Questionnaire (LTQ)

Answer 35

Significant ResearchStogdill (1948). Personal factors associated with leadership. Journal of Psychology, 25, 35-71. 8 traitStogdill (1974). Handbook of Leadership. New York: Free Press. – 10 traitsNorthouse (2004). Leadership: Theory and practice – 5 major leadership traitsContrasting Research(ers)Difficult to determine a complete list of necessary traits. (Northouse, 2004)Fails to recognize situational influence to leadership effectivenessTrait theory is highly subjectiveTraits are relatively fixed psychological structures and difficult for training and development.Cultural Significance:Various cultures will identify different traits of effective leaders.Global Significance:No universal list. Limited use of trait theoryScriptural SignificanceTraits are important. See Acts 6:3-4; 1 Tim. 3 (Overseer traits)

Question 36

Leadership StyleResearcher of Origin: Ohio State University (Stogdill, late 1940’s), University of Michigan (Lickert, same time), and Blake and Mouton (early ‘60s)Definition: Focuses on behavior of the leader, especially task behaviors and relationship behaviors.Constructs:Context: When is the theory used.Does not prescribe leader behaviors but describes major components of behavior.Reminds leaders of productivity and relational aspects of leadership. Helps leaders determine how they are doing as leaderInstrument(s): Leader Behavior Development Questionnaire (LBDQ) Stogdill), The Managerial Grid (Leadership Grid) (Blake & Mouton)

Answer 36

Significant ResearchOhio State Univ (Stogdill)Univ of Michigan (Likert)Blake and Mouton (1964). The Managerial Grid. Houston, TX: Gulf.Contrasting Research(ers)Yukl (1994) – results of research are contradictory and inconclusiveNo universal style for every situation.Cultural Significance:Helps leaders recognize need for attention to task and relational aspects of leadership.Global Significance:Does not prescribe leader behavior.Scriptural Significance:Keep close watch on personal life and teaching 1 Tim. 4:16

Question 37

Servant Leadership TheoryDescription and factors

Answer 37

Servant Leadership TheoryThe servant leader is servant first - insuring that other people’s highest priority needs are being served first.Servant leadership is distinct rom transformational leadership because leaders are focused on follower’s needs first. Transformational leadership prioritizes organizational needs. Bass, 2000 “The future of leadership in learning organizations”Factors in Liden, et al. (2008) measureConceptual skillsEmpoweringHelping subordinates grow and succeedPutting subordinates firstBehaving ethicallyEmotional healingCreating value for community

Question 38

Normative Decision Making Model(Vroom & Yetton, 1973)

Answer 38

Vroom & Yetton (1973)Autocratic​A1 – leader decides for others, no input.​A2 – get info from others, leader decidesConsultativeC1 – give info on problem and solicit ideas and suggestions from individuals; leader decides.C2 - give info on problem and solicit ideas and suggestions from group; leader decides.Group consensusG – consensusQuestions: need for buy-in, need for quality, time consideration, subordinate conflict likely an issue

Question 39

Learning organization

Answer 39

Learning organization (Garvin, 1993)​​Adapts quickly to need for change​​Makes processes for problem solving etc. 1. Systematic problem solving: scientific method, not intuition2. Experimentation w/ new approaches – continual small experiments3. Learn from experience4. Learn from others’ experience5. Transfer knowledge

Question 40

Organizational Climate and Culture

Answer 40

Organizational Climate: (Glisson and James, 2002)-perceptions of work environment, jobs, co-workers, pay, promotion opportunities, expectations, etc.-Composite of individual psychological climate – perceptions of work conditions, co-workers, pay, etc. Organizational Culture (Schein, 1990)-Organizational norms, rules, ways of doing things that are then perceived in different ways. -Culture and climate are mutually influenceable

Question 41

Strategic Archetypes(Models for structuring business)

Answer 41

Miles & Snow’s strategic Archetypes (2003)​1. Defenders: companies that are active in a mature and stable competitive domain, and defend their position/market share mainly through technological efficiency.2. Prospectors: companies that actively and continuously search for new opportunities, through the development of new products and services. They change business environments. They promote creativity, often over efficiency.3. Analyzers: companies that operate simultaneously in two different competitive domains: a stable domain, in which they try to defend their position, and a domain in flux, in which they try to minimize risks, using strategic planning techniques. They have to find the right balance (differentiation) between both efficiency and flexibility.4. Reactors: companies that do not have a clear corporate strategy, and lack effective response to competitive challenges. They simply react to external stimuli (competitors, legislation, etc.) trying to adapt themselves to the changing environment.

Question 42

Double loop learning

Answer 42

double loop learning (Argyris and Schon, 1978) Single loop learning responds to a problem, but does not correct the mentality that created it. Double loop learning addresses mindset and value systems that created it, so problems do not happen again. Einstein, I think, said that to solve a problem, it takes an intelligence greater than the one that created it.​Double loop learning is related to systems (social intelligence) approach to change.

Question 43

Opposing views: what is the criticism of Hofstede’s five dimensions of culture?

Answer 43

Hofstede’s (1980a) work has been criticized for:reducing culture to an overly simplistic four or five dimension conceptualization; limiting the sampleto a single multinational corporation; failing to capture the malleability of culture over time; andignoring within-country cultural heterogeneity (Sivakumar and Nakata, 2001). In spite of criticism,researchers have favored this five-dimension framework because of its clarity, parsimony,and resonance with managers. Yet, even given the proliferation of studies incorporating the framework,there have been few attempts to summarize the empirical findings it has generated.

Question 44

Explain Hofstede collectivism and individualism dimensions

Answer 44

The first is IND–COL, with IND defined as ‘a loosely knitsocial framework in which people are supposed to take care of themselves and of their immediatefamilies only’, while COL ‘is characterized by a tight social framework in which people distinguishbetween ingroups and outgroups, they expect their ingroup to look after them, and in exchange forthat they feel they owe absolute loyalty to it’(Hofstede, 1980b, 45).

Question 45

Explain Hofstede’s Uncertainty Avoidance Dimension

Answer 45

Third, uncertainty avoidance (UA) is defined as ‘the extent to which a society feels threatened by uncertain and ambiguous situations and tries toavoid these situations by providing greater career stability, establishing more formal rules, not tolerating deviant ideas and behaviors, and believing in absolute truths and the attainment of expertise’(1980b, 45).

Question 46

Explain Hofstede’s Power Distance dimension

Answer 46

The second dimension is powerdistance (PD), defined as ‘the extent to which a society accepts the fact that power in institutionsand organizations is distributed unequally’ (1980b, 45).

Question 47

Explain the later 5th dimension of culture

Answer 47

Michael Harris Bond (Chinese Culture Connection, 1987) and later Hofstede and Bond (1988) developed a fifth dimension, Confucian dynamism (or long-term vsshort-term orientation). Long-term orientation refers to future-oriented values such as persistenceand thrift, whereas short-term orientation refers to past- and present-oriented values such as respect for tradition and fulfilling social obligations.

Question 48

Explain Hofstede’s masculine femininity dimensions

Answer 48

The fourth dimension is masculinity (MAS)–femininity (FEM), with MAS defined as ‘theextent to which the dominant values in society are ‘‘masculine’’ – that is, assertiveness, the acquisitionof money and things, and not caring for others, the quality of life, or people’ (1980b, 46) and FEM defined as the opposite of MAS.

Question 49

Action Learning, Action ResearchDescription: Action research from Lewin spawned two strategies: action learning in Europe (Revans) and action science in US (Argyris)Action learning describes a developmental approach, used in a group setting but affecting the individual and organizational levels of experience that seeks to apply and generate theory from real work situations. Action science is an intervention approach, also aimed at the individual, team, and organizational levels of experience, for helping learners increase their effectiveness in social situations through heightened awareness of the assumptions behind their actions and interactions. Theory applied to directly to the field, researchers and practitioners collaborating.Constructs: n/aContext:Organizational learning, knowledge creation, group theory, leadership development, HRD, group problem solving, intervention methodologyKey Thinkers: Kurt Lewin, Chris Argyris (US), Reg Revans (Europe), Michael MarquardtInstrument(s): n/a

Answer 49

Literature:Marquardt, M. J. (2000). Action learning and leadership. The Learning Organization, 7(5), 233-240.Marquardt, M. (2004). Harnessing the power of action learning. T & D, 58(6), 26-32.Revans, R. W. (2008). Sketches in action learning. Performance Improvement Quarterly, 11(1) pp. 23-27.Critiques:Ralph D. Stacy’s critique of systems theory argues that neither an individual nor a group can genuinely step outside to analyze a ‘system’ since complexity theory asserts that the very nature of their interaction generates constant change and re-formation of the social setting.SignificanceCultural: Action learning approach may be difficult to apply in power distant cultures.Global: “Action learning can be effective in developing leaders in all fields of endeavor, in all cultures, and at all levels because it is so flexible and adaptive.” (Marquardt, 2000, p. 239)Scriptural: James 2:17 – dead faith without works, genuine belief results in action; faith is expressed in community, problem solving together

Question 50

Theory of MotivationDescription: Motivation is the antecedent to productivity. Motivation is the individual desire and willingness to exert effort toward attaining job performance. (Ivancevich, et al., 2008). Content approach to motivation study: focus on factors within the person that energize, direct, sustain, and stop behavior (Maslow, Herzberg, Alderfer, McClelland) Process approach to motivation study: describes, explains, and analyzes how behavior is energized, directed, sustained, and stopped. (Ivancevich, et al., p. 113) (Vroom, Adams, Locke)Constructs:direction (individual’s choice when offered alternatives);intensity (strength of response when choice made); and persistence (staying power of behavior)Context: Organizational learning, training and development, HRD, addictive behavior, productivityKey Thinkers:A. Maslow’s Hierarchy of NeedsF. Herzberg’s hygiene factors (intrinsic – extrinsic)Alderfer’s ERG (existence, relatedness, growth)McClellands Learned needs – need for achievement, affiliation, and powerVictor Vroom – expectancy theory – people motivated by perceiving that their successful performance will result in desired rewards.John S. Adams - equity theory (1963) – employees treated fairly and evenly for similar performanceEdwin Locke – goal-setting theory – goals are the conscious determinants of behavior.Instrument(s):

Answer 50

Literature:Ivancevich, J. M., Konopaske, R., & Matteson, M. T. (2008). Organization behavior and management (8th ed.). New York: Mcgraw-Hill/Irwin.Critiques:SignificanceCultural Significance:Global Significance:All peoples are motivated. The manager’s task is to understand the unique motivation of employee.Scriptural SignificancePhil 3:8 – count everything loss compared to knowing ChristPhil 3:14 - Christ-centered motivation – “the upward call of God in Christ Jesus”

Question 51

7 Elements of Org ClimateBurton and Obel (2004)

Answer 51

1. Trust2. Conflict3. Morale4. Equity of Rewards5. Resistance to Change6 Leader Credibility7. Scapegoating

Question 52

4 Elements of GroupthinkEllis and Fisher 1994

Answer 52

1. Mindless cohesion2. Pressuring nonconformists3. Failing to reward critical thinking4. Tendency to justify what they have done

Question 53

GroupthinkIrving Janis (1971, 1972, 1982)Ellis & Fisher (1994)

Answer 53

Irving Janis (1971, 1972, 1982) A cohesive group’s reluctance to express private doubts about a decision.Ellis & Fisher (1994)Phenomenon when a group avoids conflict and reaches consensus without criticizing and evaluating ideas. (p 133)Requires the right blend of conformity and critical analysis (Ellis & Fisher, 1994)

Question 54

3 Elements of Learning OrganizationsEasterby-Smith, et al (1999)

Answer 54

A firm that purposefully constructs structures and strategies to enhance orgnaizational learning.1. Foster an environment conducive to learning2. Stimulate exchange of ideas3. Create learning forums

Question 55

Problems Organizations Must Address(Miles & Snow, 1978)

Answer 55

Three fundamental problems: 1. Entrepreneurial problem. How a company should manage its market share.2. Engineering problem. How a company should implement its solution to the entrepreneurial problem.3. Administrative problem. How a company should structure itself to manage the implementation of the solutions to the first two problems.

Question 56

Complex Responsive ProcessRobert Stacey (2001)

Answer 56

Organizations are patterns of communication interaction between interdependent individuals.

Question 57

5 Decision Making Models(Beach and Connolly (2005)

Answer 57

1. Rational2. Informational3. Structural4. Garbage Can5. Participative

Question 58

3 Levels of Organizational Culture(Edgar Schein, 1992)

Answer 58

1. Visible Artifacts - rituals, processes, objects, visible structures2. Espoused values - strategies, goals, philosophies (espoused justifications); 3. Tacit, basic underlying assumptions (more subtle than values; similar to Argyris’ “espoused theories in use concept”)Schein (1992). Organizational Culture and Leadership, p. 17

Question 59

Dimensions of Culture: Individualism & CollectivismHostede (2001)

Answer 59

Individualism refers to the degree that one feels responsible for and to him or herself and concerned primarily for one’s own interests and family/group.Collectivism refers to attitude that personal interests are best served by working for the interests of the group ro community.

Question 60

Dimensions of Org Culture(How are basic assumptions formed?)

Answer 60

Adapting to the External environment:Essential elements include -* mission and strategy,* goals,* means to goal fulfillment,* measurement, and* correction. (Schein, 1992, p. 52)Adapting to the Internal environment”Essential elements include - * common lang/conceptual categories* group boundaries (Criteria for inclus/exclus* distribution of power and status* norms of intimacy,friendship, and love* defining and allocating rewards/punishments* ideology and religion (Schein, 1992, pp. 70-71)

Question 61

The Hawthorne Effect

Answer 61

Derived from experiments at Hawthorne Works, a Western Electric plant in Cicero, IL in 1930’s which generally demonstrated that environmental change in social dimensions causes increase in productivity.