12.1 sustainable energy supplies Flashcards
1
Q
Energy Mix
A
How the final energy consumption in a country/region is broken down according to primary energy sourced (to then produce secondary)
2
Q
Trends in global energy consumption
A
HEP:
- important in Central and Southern America - Paraguay it provides nearly 100% of power
- around 10% in all other countries except the Middle East
oil:
- Most still use oil as their primary energy source.
- in Middle East it forms over 50% of the energy mix with the Asia Pacific region being the only place to have less that 30%
Coal:
- used least in the Middle East, most in Asia Pacific (55%), about 25% in Europe, Africa, N.America
- America and the Middle East both used less than 5%
Natural gas:
- main source of energy in Europe and Eurasia
- significant cross-border infrastructure projects
Nuclear:
- tiny portion of the energy mix globally
- largest use in Europe, Eurasia and North America
- significantly greater share in South/Central America (despite N.America being big producer) and Europe than rest of the world
- limited in some places such as the Middle East
Other Renewables:
- growing massively
- currently important in Europe and Eurasia
–
- 2019: renewables and natural gas increased. Coal consumption reduced in HICs, constant in LICs/MICs
- still <5% in all countries
- None in Middle East or CIS
3
Q
oil
A
- oil spills, catastrophic explosions, fires, pollution, acid rain, greenhouse effect, non-renewable, new reserves require large investments,
- demand depends on levels of oil consumption, oil reserves, global exchange rates, environmental issues, politics
- global economy relies on oil to large extent
- From just over 60 million barrels daily in the mid 1980s, global demand rose steeply to 89.8 million barrels a day in 2012
- Asia Pacific region accounts for 33.6 per, Africa only 4
- high energy density, easy to transport (pipes, ships), flexible use (petrol, heating oil, bitumen), cleaner and easier to burn than coal
- ## limited supply (30bn barrels used per year, only 4bn discovered per year), price fluctuates and vulnerability under control of OPEC and wars, issues with oil spills, produces atmospheric pollutants
4
Q
coal
A
- main contributor to the increase of carbon monoxide in the atmosphere
- Coal production is dominated by the Asia Pacific region, accounting for 67.8 per cent of the global total in 2012. China, which alone mines 47.5 per cent of the world total
- Coal reserves can become exhausted within a relatively short time period
- easy and simple to build, high energy density, plentiful supplies, new technology allows for easy ground extraction, carbon capture = ↓ emission
- produces pollutants (SO2, CO2), bulky to transport, produces large volume of waste, high sulphur content (flue gas desulphurisation produces gypsum and needs a lot of limestone)
5
Q
natural gas
A
- dominated by the US and Russia
- Global natural gas demand grew by 5.3% in 2021, recovering above the pre-pandemic 2019 levels
- Gas prices have significantly increased due to the Ukrainian war and causing a 13-20% decline in gas consumption in the EU
- Well drilling activities produce air pollution and may disturb people, wildlife, and water resources
- large deposits yet to be discovered, cleanest of the fossil fuels, 50% reduction in USA gas prices due to fracking, new technologies developed
- limited supply, produces GHGs, fracking induces seismic activity, associated health issues if gas/fluids leak into underground aquifers
- ## 1m fracking sites in the USA, across 30 states
6
Q
nuclear energy
A
- The first commercial nuclear power stations started operation in the 1950s
- Nuclear energy now provides about 10% of the world’s electricity from about 440 power reactors.
- Over 50 countries utilize nuclear energy 2015: 30 countries worldwide operating 443 nuclear reactors for electricity generation
- 2012: nuclear power accounted for 11% of world’s electricity production
- Concerns: Accidents, Radioactive waste, Terrorism, High construction and decommissioning costs, Health issues: increased cancer in area
- very efficient (1 station = wind farm the size of Luxemburg), no atmospheric pollutant, reduced dependence on greenhouse gasses
- expensive to build/run, takes long time to plan and then decommission, hard to dispose of toxic water (U235 = 700m yr half life), disasters such as Chernobyl taint the image
7
Q
HP
A
- natural flow of moving water to generate electricity
- global consumption of hydro-electricity increased from 598.5 million tonnes oil equivalent in 2002 to 831.1 million tonnes in 2012
- China (23.4 per cent), Brazil (11.4 per cent) Canada (10.4 per cent) and the USA (7.6 per cent)
- A micro hydro power (MHP)’plant’ is a type of hydro electric power scheme that produces up to 100 KW of electricity using a flowing steam or a water flow. used in developing countries to provide electricity to isolated communities or rural villages where electricity grid is not available
- case study: The Itaipu Dam, Brazil: 2018, the energy generated was used to supply nearly 90% of the electricity consumed in Paraguay, built in February 1971 and cost USD17.6 billion
- once operating they are very cheap and efficient to run, emitting no green house gasses
- : building structures on rivers and dams may harm the wildlife, are expensive and may over flow or experience silt build up
8
Q
biofuels and fuelwood
A
- crops used to make ethanol/oil can be blended with petrol and diesel
- rose rapidly, levelled off in 2010
- Ethanol accounts for 90% of total biofuel production, most petrol engines can run on blends of up to 15% ethanol
- USA: 40% maize used to produce ethanol (USA and Brazil main producers: 87% of world in total)
- In Brazil, more than 50% of sugar cane used for this, much cheaper than ethanol in USA bc of climatic factors, land availability and greater efficiency of sugar
- In LICs 2.5 M ppl rely on fuelwood, charcoal and animal dung for cooking
- Accounts for 50% of global wood production
- energy ladder
- Main cause of indoor air pollution in LICs: 1.5 M deaths/year, more than half below 5 yrs old
- easy to store and scale to demand, absorbs CO2 while growing, allows the reuse of wastes
- produced CO2 during burning, farming is controversial (food dilemma, deforestation, soil erosion, habitat loss)
- Brazil: around 27m cars (73%) run on an ethanol/ petrol mixture – reducing fossil fuel consumption
9
Q
wind power
A
- Dominated by very small number of countries – China us the current world leader with 31% of global capacity, followed by the USA, Germany, Spain and India (total 72%)
- 10% cheaper to generate electricity using wind power than 20 years ago
- Repowering: replacing 1st gen wind turbines with modern multi-megawatt turbines
- arguably the most important of the new renewable sources of energy: worldwide capacity of wind energy is approaching 400 000 megawatts
- As the cost of wind energy improves further against conventional energy sources, more and more countries will expand into this sector
- In the last five years, for the first time ever, more new wind power capacity was installed in LICs and MICs than in the developed world
- expects turbine costs to be reduced
by 3.5 per cent a year - adv: most countries have suitable sites, flexible locations
- stupid people think its ugly, noise pollution, tv reception can be interrupted, coastal locations: land expensive
- cost dropped 6x since 1980, no GHG emissions, will never run out, low operating costs
- intermittent, supply can’t rise with demand, harms wildlife, noise and visual pollution
- Walney Island, UK: contributes 1GW to UK’s total 10GW, comprised of 87 turbines in Irish Sea to power nearly 500,000 homes
10
Q
solar power
A
- installed capacity of solar electricity is growing rapidly
- In 2000, global solar capacity was only 1275 megawatts. It grew to 5085 megawatts in 2005 and 40 183 in 2010
- 0.5 per cent of all global electricity generation
- Germany, China, Italy, Japan, USA and Spain currently lead the global market for solar power
- costly, carefully placed
- cost reducing every year
- needs little maintenance
- saves 500,000 tons CO2 in Barcelonaű
- must be south-facing in a location with good sun exposure, expensive cells, needs large amount of land, harmful manufacture process
11
Q
geothermal
A
- the natural heat found in the earth’s crust in the form of steam, hot water and hot rock
- Rainwater percolates into the ground through
permeable rocks several km deep where its heated by
the earth’s geothermal gradient - In 2021 it produced 30% of Iceland’s total energy supply :During the 20th century Iceland went from being one of Europe’s poorest countries, importing most of its energy (mainly coal), to 85% of its energy use coming from indigenous renewable sources
- Advantages: it is a stable andsustainable energy source, with minimal environmental impacts, reliable and consistent
- Disadvantages: its location restricted and there’s a risk of earthquakes (although most power plants are located far from population centres), it has high upfront costs and it may release greenhouse gases from the soil that naturally would take a much longer time to emerge
- can lower temperature below surface and release gases, expenses, seismic testing
- 4% growth per year
- no GHG emissions, small footprint power stations, free, no fuel required
- limited locations (needs geothermal activity and correct rocks), may run out of steam or heat, may release sulphur and hazardous minerals
- Iceland: powers 95% of Reykjavik, 750MW power, heats 60m m3 of water to 86oC, saves 4m tons CO2
12
Q
physical factors of energy supply
A
- deposits of fossil fuels in limited number of locations
- large-scale HEP development requires high precipitation, major steep-sided valleys and impermeable rock
-large power stations require flat and geologically stable foundations - solar power needs a large number of days w strong sunlight
- wind power needs needs high average wind speeds throughout the year
- Tidal power stations require a very large tidal range
- The availability of biomass varies widely according to climatic conditions
- Countries with windier, sunnier or wetter climates are more likely to harness energy from respective renewables
- New Zealand: 27mph average winds in Wellington so have installed 62 turbines for 73,000 homes
- Canada/Scandinavia: very cold countries use more energy than warmer HICs to keep warm in winter
13
Q
economic factors of energy supply
A
- The most accessible, and lowest-cost, deposits of fossil fuels are invariably developed first
- Onshore deposits of oil and gas are usually cheaper to develop than offshore deposits
- Potential HEP sites close to major transport routes and existing electricity transmission corridors are more economical to build than those in very inaccessible locations
- In poor countries, FDI is often essential for the development of energy resources
- When energy prices rise significantly, companies increase spending on exploration and development
- there is a global imbalance in energy demand that correlates with development
- HICs use at least 5 equivalent oil tonnes more than LICs
- HICs: can afford high energy use (cars, heating…)
- MICs: have rapidly increasing demand (manufacture)
- LICs: have little demand
- to meet demand by producing energy from supplies, heavy investment is required
- LICs lose freedoms to Trans-National companies who produce energy for them
- Oil: offshore rigs cost at least $500 million
- Coal power stations: around $2 billion
- Wind turbines: around $5 million per turbine
14
Q
political factors of energy supply
A
- Countries wanting to develop nuclear electricity require permission from the International Atomic Energy Agency
- International agreements such as the Kyoto Protocol can have a considerable influence on the energy decisions of individual countries
- Potential HEP schemes on ‘international rivers’ may require the agreement of other countries that share the river
- Governments may insist on energy companies producing a certain proportion of their energy from renewable sources
- Legislation regarding emissions from power stations will favour the use of, for example, low-sulphur coal, as opposed to coal with a high sulphur content
- legislation, treaties, taxation and investment incentives to either increase supply (more power stations etc.) or decrease demand (focus on efficiency, sustainability and pollution reduction)
- ## Kyoto Protocol: 192 countries agreeing to reduce greenhouse gas emissions, an extension of the 1992 ENFCCC agreement. Superseded by Paris 2020
15
Q
resource endowment as a factor or energy supply
A
- Some countries are relatively rich in domestic energy resources, while others are lacking in such resources and heavily reliant on imports
- resources by themselves do not constitute supply. Capital and technology are required to exploit resources
- Energy resources are not evenly distributed around the world
- A country with a richer supply of fossil fuels is likely to use those as their primary resource supply
- Russia: 177 billion tons of proven coal reserves
- Middle East: 836 billion barrels of oil reserves
