12. RM Observations

Question 1

Define non-experimental methods.

Answer 1

-Non experimental methods differ from experimental in that they do not have an IV or a DV, are not necessarily conducted under controlled conditions and are therefore difficult to replicate and do not show causality.
-They include correlational analysis, naturalistic observations, self report and case studies.

Question 2

What is observational research?

Answer 2

Watch or listen to what the participants do.

(It is not possible to establish cause and effect in an observation).

Question 3

What is a strength of observational research?

Answer 3

What people say they do is often different from what they actually do, so observations give a different take on behaviour than other research method, such as self report. Possible greater validity.

Question 4

What is a weakness of observational research?

Answer 4

-Observers may see what they expect to see (observer bias).
-Behaviours recorded may be those visible or eye catching to the observer.
-Observations cannot provide information about what people think.

Question 5

Describe structured observation.

Answer 5

-Structured observations are staged and normally carried out within an environment in which the researcher has some control, such as a laboratory for making observations using a one way mirror.
-Structure observations are set to record behaviours where it would be difficult to gain information in a naturalistic observation. They allow the experimenter to control any variables which may influence behaviour (eg noise).

Question 6

What is a strength of structured observation?

Answer 6

-Controlled environment allows focus on particular aspects of behaviour, for example children playing with ‘feminine’ toys to observe how boys and girls react. This means that specific conclusions can be drawn about gender responses, if everything was natural the children might not encounter different types of toys.
-It may be possible to draw some tentative causal conclusions. If variables are deliberately changed by the researcher and different effects are observed then it suggests that one caused the other. For a true experiment there would need to be a control condition to make comparisons.

Question 7

What is a weakness of structured observation?

Answer 7

-Environment may feel unnatural and then participants may not behave as they would in everyday life, meaning observations may lack ecological validity.
-Participants may know they are being observed, for example if the observation takes place in a laboratory so that the researcher can control aspects of the situation. This awareness means that participants may try to guess what the study is about which alters their behaviour (demand characteristics are present).

Question 8

Describe naturalistic observation.

Answer 8

-Naturalistic observations do not control any variables as they are purely observational. They involve observing the behaviour or participants within their own environment.
-They tend to produce accounts of behaviour that are rich in detail and can be qualitative or quantitative.

Question 9

What is a strength of naturalistic observation?

Answer 9

-A realistic picture of a natural, spontaneous behaviour. The observation takes place in a person/animal’s natural environment and so they are likely to behave as they normally do. This means the results are likely to be high in ecological validity.
-Useful method when investigating a new area of research. Gives researcher ideas of what further investigations may be planned.

Question 10

What is a weakness of naturalistic observation?

Answer 10

-Observation is more likely to be covert, which raises ethical issues.
-It is difficult to draw conclusions if the focus is too wide. If behavioural categories and event/time sampling have been used that may restrict the amount of data collected which makes it easier to see patterns of behaviour.

Question 11

Describe overt observation.

Answer 11

-Overt observations involve the participants knowing they are being observed.

Question 12

What is a strength of overt observation?

Answer 12

-Avoids lack of informed consent because participants can decide whether to participate.
-It is easier to see everything that is going on because the observer doesn’t have to hide.

Question 13

What is a weakness of overt observation?

Answer 13

If participants know they are being observed they are likely to alter their behaviour (demand characteristics).

Question 14

Describe covert (undercover) observation.

Answer 14

-Covert observations involve the participants not knowing they are being observed but they may be informed afterwords.

Question 15

What is a strength of covert observation?

Answer 15

Participants behave more naturally because they are not aware of being observed.

Question 16

What is a weakness of covert observation?

Answer 16

-Raises ethical issues about observing people without their knowledge.
-Invasion of privacy even in observations in a public space as people may regard it as unethical to record what they are doing.

Question 17

Describe participant observation.

Answer 17

Sometimes it may be necessary for the observer to become part of the group they are studying, as in the case with participant observations.

Question 18

What is a strength of participant observation?

Answer 18

-Likely to provide special insights into their behaviour. Participant has greater familiarity with what is likely to happen and therefore may see greater detail that would be missed by someone new to the situation.
-Being on the inside means the observer may see more as they are closer to the action and may see/hear more of what is going on than an observer at distance.

Question 19

What is a weakness of participant observation?

Answer 19

-Objectivity is reduced (observer bias). Because the observer is familiar with what is going on they are looking at the situation more subjectively.
-More difficult to record and monitor behaviour unobtrusively if the observer is part of the group being observed. Therefore the observation is likely to be overt and participants are aware they are being studied, which may alter their behaviour.

Question 20

Describe non-participant observation.

Answer 20

When the researcher remains separate from those they are studying and records behaviour in a more objective manner. It may often be impractical or even impossible to join particular groups so that non-participation is the only option.

Question 21

What is a strength of non-participant observation?

Answer 21

-Increased objectivity because of psychological and also possibly a physical difference.
-Can observe unobtrusively so participants are not self conscious about being observed. This may increase validity as participants behave more naturally.

Question 22

What is a weakness of non-participant observation?

Answer 22

-Observer may misinterpret the communication within the group because they are an outsider. This could reduce the validity of the observations.
-Observer may see less.

Question 23

What are the 2 methods that quantitative data can be gathered by using tallying?

(Numerical, useful when analysing results).

Answer 23

1. Event sampling
2. Time sampling
3. Behavioural categories.

Question 24

Describe event sampling.

Answer 24

Counting the number of times a certain behaviour (events) occurs in a target individual (eg how many times a person smiles).

Question 25

Describe time sampling.

Answer 25

-Recording the behaviours in a given time frame (eg noting what a target individual is doing every 30 seconds).
-Time sampling can also include sampling within a time frame (eg recording the first 10 seconds of every minute). At that time, the observer may tick a category from a checklist.

Question 26

What are some strengths of event and time sampling?

Answer 26

-Both methods make observing behaviour more manageable by taking a sample.
-Event sampling is useful when behaviour to be recorded only happens occasionally. Missing events would reduce validity.
-Time sampling allows for tracking of time related changes in behaviour.

Question 27

What are some weaknesses of event and time sampling?

Answer 27

-Observations may not be representative if list of events is not comprehensive, reduces validity.
-Time sampling may decrease validity because some behaviours are missed if important behaviour occurs outside of the observation interval.

Question 28

Describe behavioural categories.

Answer 28

-In order to structure what is recorded, researchers need to clearly define target behaviours.
-Behaviours are counted.
-Separates continuous stream of action into components.

Question 29

What is an effective category?

Answer 29

Behavioural categories should be measurable, not overlap and avoid ‘dustbin categories’ within which many behaviours are recorded.

Question 30

What is a strength of behavioural categories?

Answer 30

-Enables systematic observations to be made so important information is not overlooked, enhances validity.
-Categories can be tallied and conclusions drawn.

Question 31

What is a weakness of behavioural categories?

Answer 31

-Categories may not cover all possibilities, some behaviours not recorded (low validity).
-Poor design of categories may also reduce reliability.