12. Linguistic chapter 14 Flashcards
What is second Language acquisition+
There is apparently no other system of “knowledge” that we can learn better at two or three years of age than thirteen or thirty- but most people find it hard to become as effective at communicating in a foreign or second language L2 as they are in their first language L1. There is a distinction in learning a “foreign language” EFL (learning a language that is not spoken in the surrounding community) and a “second language” setting (learning a language that is spoken in the surrounding area) ESL. Learning is used for the conscious accumulation of knowledge and “acquisition” for the non-conscious development of ability- we experience both in second language experiences.
What is subtractive bilingualism & additive bilingual?
The goal of acquiring language is to become bilingual - that is, proficient in two languages. In the not-to-distant past immigrants to the USA speaking Spanish as their L1 were actively discouraged, often with physical punishment, from using their first language in educational institutions. The effect of this is called subtractive bilingualism which led to the loss of intergenerational transfer of the family´s heritage and language. Recently heritage languages have been given recognition through dual-immersion programs, which had benefits such as better linguistic skills and security in identity and great self-esteem and this acquisition is described as additive bilingual.
What are some acquisition barriers?
Humans usually encounter L2 in their teenage/adult years in schools for a few hours (rather than via the constant interaction as a child) while they have a lot of things going on (young children have little else to do). They have also developed an unconscious commitment to sound and structures of an already known language. - insufficient time & focus. Few adults reach native-like proficiency in L2 but few achieve great expertise in the written language and this might suggest that some features in L2 such as vocabulary and grammar are easier to acquire than others such as pronunciation.
What is the age factor?
This observation is sometimes taken as evidence that, after the critical period for language acquisition has passed, around the time of puberty, it becomes very difficult to acquire another language fully. The process might involve the inherent capacity for language being taken over by features of the L1 with a resulting loss of openness to receive the features of another language, the dominance of the L1 is strong in terms of pronunciation. Against this view it has been demonstrated that students in their early teens are quicker and more effective L2 learning in the classroom than a seven-year-old.
What are some affective factors to why it is hard to learn L2?
If there is a strong element of unwillingness or embarrassment in attempting to produce sounds of other languages, then it might override whatever physical and cognitive abilities there are. If self-consciousness is accompanied by a lack of empathy with the other culture, the subtle effects of not wanting to sound like a Russian or American may inhabit the learning process. As well as the result of dull textbooks, unpleasant classrooms and surroundings or an exhausting schedule of study or work. All negative feelings or experiences are affective factors that create a barrier to acquisition.
What is instrumental motivation & integrative motivation in L2?
The most important factor in successful L2 learners is motivation. Many learners have an instrumental motivation. They want to learn L2 in order to achieve some other goal, such as completing a graduation requirement or being able to read scientific publications- but for no social purposes. Another motivation is integrative motivation for those who want to learn the L2 for social purposes, to take part in the social life of a community using that language and to become an accepted member of that community. Those who experience success in L2 communication are among the most motivated to learn.
What is the Grammar-Translation Method?
The most traditional approach is to treat L2 learning the same way as any other academic subject. Vocabulary lists and sets of grammar rules are used to define the target of learning, memorization is encouraged and written language rather than spoken language is emphasized. Learning about L2 often leaves students quite ignorant of how the language might be used in everyday conversation. The method has produced successful L2 users but students often leave school, having achieved high grades in French class via this method, yet find themselves at a loss when confronted by the way the French in France actually use their language. Strong focus on getting grammatical forms correct tends to make learners depend on “controlled” processing.
What is the audiolingual method?
Another approach involves a systematic presentation of the structures of the L2, moving from simple to more complex, in the form of drills that the student had to repeat- this is called the audiolingual method. It was believed that the fluent use of a language was essentially a set of “habits” that could be developed with a lot of practice- the practice involved hours spent in a language lab repeating oral drills. The key to the success might have been the intense all-day immersion- the bad thing is that it has no interactional nature of actual spoken language and it is extremely boring.
What are communicative approaches?
This approach is based on a belief that the function of language (what it is used for) should be emphasized rather than the form of the language (correct form and structures). Classroom lessons are likely to be organized around concepts such as “asking for things” in different social settings, rather than “the forms of the past tense” in different sentences.
What is task-based learning?
This approach has been to create different types of tasks and activities in which learners have to interact with each other, usually in small groups or pairs, to exchange information or solve problems. The assumption is using tasks such as “describe a way to get from A to B so that your partner can draw the route on a map” or “plan a shopping trip with your partner by making a shopping list” students will improve their ability, especially their fluency, by using the L2 in an activity that focuses on getting meaning across and has a clear goal.
How do we focus on the learner when teaching?
Rather than consider a Spanish L1 speaker´s production of the “in the room there are three womens” as a failure to learn correct English (which can be remedied through extra practise of the correct form) we can look at this as an indication of the natural L2 acquisition process in action (overgeneralization). An “error” then, is not something that hinders a student’s progress, it is probably a clue to the active learning progress being made by the student as he or she tries out ways of communication in the new language.
What is positive transfer and negative transfer?
Language transfer is the application of linguistic features from one language L1 to another by a bilingual or multilingual speaker L2. For example, Korean sentences use a subject-object-verb structure, while English sentences follow a subject-verb-object structure. Thus, a Korean speaker of English may incorrectly say: ‘‘I your cat saw. Transfer means using sounds, expressions or structures from L1 when performing in L2. The learner may be able to benefit from the positive transfer of L1 knowledge to the L2. But putting the adjective after the noun results in negative transfer and makes the L2 expression difficult to understand.
What is interlanguage?
If the Spanish L1 speaker says “She name is Maria” he is using a form that is not used by adult speakers of English and does not occur in English L1 acquisition by children and is not based on a structure in Spanish. Evidence of this sort suggests that there is an in-between system used in the L2 acquisition process that certainly contains aspects of the L1 and L2 but which is an inherently variable system with rules of its own.
Interlanguage is systematic. Although different learners have different interlanguage, they all have their own rules within their variations. They may not align with the actual rules but they are systematic: ‘‘I received money, I buyed a new car, and I selled it. ‘’ Rules are set in predictable ways.
What is input in L2?
Input is described as the words/language that the learner is exposed to but to be beneficial to L2 learners, that input has to be comprehensible- because we can’t process what we don’t understand. Input can be made comprehensible by being simpler in structure and vocabulary as in the variety of speech called foreigner talk. You might ask and L2 “How are you getting on in your studies?” if he doesn’t understand you switch to “English class, you like it?”- basic structure of the L2 as input.
What is negotiated input and output?
When the learner’s interlanguage develops there is a need for negotiated input. Negotiated input is L2 material that the learner can acquire in interaction through request for clarification while active attention is being focused on what is said. NNS-non native NS- native speaker
NS: like part of a triangle
NNS: What is triangle?
NS: three straight sides
NNS: A peak?
NS: Yes like a mountain peak, yes
NNS: Only line, only line
NS: Little lines on each side?
NNS: a triangle yes.
In this type of interaction the learner experiences the benefit of both receiving input (hearing the L2) and producing output (speaking the L2). The opportunity to produce comprehensible output in meaningful interaction seems to be another important element in the learners development of L2 ability.
