1.2 Equality - scholars Flashcards by reyaf w

Aristotle: the first formalised principle of equality

logic requires we ‘treat like cases as like’

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Augustine: ‘equality must be something other than…

…treating every one in the same way since everyone is different’

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Lyndon B Johnson: example to demonstrate equality requires more than same treatment

you do not take a person who has been hobbled up by chains for years, liberate him, bring him up to the start line of a race, say he is free to compete with all the others, and believe you have been completely fair

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Hume: view on inequalities between people

people are by nature unequal in ability - some will prosper, others will not

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Marx: how to achieve greater justice

state tries to balance inequalities eg taxing wealthy more and using it to help the poor

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Nagel: what total true equality would require

radical overthrow of the political system and limitations on freedoms such as people’s ability to make the most of their skills and talents

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Nagel - the claim that persons are owed equality becomes informative only when…

… one is told what kind of equality they are owed

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Nagel: idea that inequality is intentional

many inequalities eg racism and sexism are deliberately imposed. social democracy may seek equality of opportunity, but there is still inequality of result

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Abernethy: origins of equality in western society

embedded in the foundation of western civilisation. although not codified until the eighteenth century, the idea has always been present as it is based on conceptions of natural right and law, which have been essential in seeking a philosophy of man and nature and God

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Abernethy: the augustinian concept of predestination in relation to equality

implies worldly inequality is a necessary part of the divine scheme of things. Your status and destiny are determined by god - cannot change that, must accept it

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Robert P Jones’ Racism Index of USA population conclusions

holding racist views is positively and independently associated with white Christian identity - a relationship which was then found to be stronger among more frequent church goers

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Toitus: 3 Biblical reasons Apartheid was supported

throughout Bible God separates contrasting elements such as light and dark - the same rationale should be applied to people
‘unity’ always meant spiritually with Christ, not literally between people
calling from god to ‘guide the native… be bearers of light where darkness still prevails’

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Robert P Jones - evident racism associated with Christianity in the US serves as a call to…

‘find the humility and courage and love to face the truth about our long relationship with white supremacy and to dismantle the Christian worldview we built to justify it’

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Steve Phillips: the USA social contract is racist - 3 examples from the Declaration of Independence

article 1 section 2 clause 3 equated individual black people to 3/5 of a person
‘Fugitive Slave Clause’ made illegal to interfere with slave owners tracking ‘drapetomaniacs’
Jefferson’s original draft forcefully denounced slavery and slave trade, but abandoned this when met with backlash from states involved in slave trade

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Steve Phillips: evidence that today the USA social contract is still racist - the right to vote

-one of the only pieces of legislation regularly reviewed by congress, and requiring further legislation to specify and enforce what is meant by ‘everyone’

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

3 main points of Hobbes’ idea of the ‘state of nature’

natural inclination is to fall to a state of war
competition of everyone against each other for scarce resources
continual state of fear and danger of violent death

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

3 key points of Hobbes’ views on humanity

we only act in self interest
all believe we are capable of getting what we want
all basically equal in strength and intelligence as everyone can be beaten in these aspects by another

How well did you know this?

Not at all

Perfectly

Hobbes: how to prevent humans falling to the state of nature

enforce a SOCIAL CONTRACT in which everyone forfeits some liberties in exchange for something else

Hobbes: how to enforce a social contract

Monarchy:
- elect a third party to enforce it (a government)
- we give this party consent to have authority, so are obligated to obey them as our side of the contract

social contract: prison example from game theory demonstrating best case scenario is to cooperate for the common good

2 prisoners brought in for a crime, and are each told that if they testify against the other they can go free
POSSIBLE OUTCOMES:
both stay silent and get 1 year each
both betray the other and get 5 years each
one betrays the other, betrayed gets 10 years, betrayer goes free
best individual outcomes stem from betrayal, but adding up the total punishment received, the best overall outcome stems from cooperation

Locke’s idea of the ‘state of nature’ (3 key points)

resources abundant enough to go around without conflict, although the possibility of war generally more likely
‘men live according to reason’ and the ‘law of nature’ eg no one ought to harm another
‘uncertain and constantly exposed to the invasion of others’

Locke’s idea of a social contract: democracy rather than monarchy

idea we can only give up liberties by consent - applies to laws made by government as well as just electing the government
consent to laws via majority vote, and if government strays from social contract under which they were elected we can terminate it and pick a new one

Examples of Rousseau’s promotion of democracy

-challenged absolute monarchy and divine right
-argued for governing system to protect citizens’ freedom, stating that if gov fails this then citizens have a right to dissolve the social contract in favour of a new one

Rousseau: meaning of ‘man was born free, and he is everywhere in chains’

Personal freedom vs societal constraint: being in a society means giving up certain rights and freedoms in order for the community to function. utter freedom would impose on the freedom of others.

Rachel Stuart's definition of morality

the set of rules governing behaviour that rational people accept, on the condition that others accept them too

Rawls' explanation of a 'moral personality'

-a sense of justice and possibility one will heed moral appeals made to them. Based on a range property of characteristics - all humans who possess a moral personality do so equally (regardless of how strongly traits are expressed, they are equal because they exist) therefore it is what we can base equality on

Singer's criticism of Rawls' 'moral personality' (2 key points)

- suggests 'all humans are equal except very young or intellectually disabled ones' - unclear where the minimum requirement for having a moral personality be drawn

Rawls' idea of fair equality of opportunity

those whoa re at the same level of natural talent should have the same prospects of success regardless of social class

Rawls' 3 conditions required to choose principles for a just society

- original position (starting from zero) - behind the veil of ignorance (no knowledge of what race, sex, social class etc you will be born into) - assumption that all people are rational and uninterested in wellbeing of others

Rawls: how the veil of ignorance thought experiment proves society is unfair, and that we know the ways in which it is unfair

if asked now if we were willing to be born randomly into society, we would say this is too risky and not feel secure doing so

Nagel's criticism of Rawls' concept of the veil of ignorance

we cannot truly imagine ourselves behind the veil of ignorance since our whole understanding of the world is gained from our position in society

Trevor Huddleston's response to racism - 2 quotes

-the sin of racial pride... must be condemned by the Church -my responsibility is always and everywhere the same: to see in my brother more even than the personality and manhood that are his... to see Christ himself

Singer: ‘The principle that all humans are equal is now part of …’? And what does it mean?

'the prevailing political and ethical orthodoxy' - means the idea of equality between humans is generally taken to be an authorised, acceptable rule within politics, law, and society's overall idea of what is ethically correct.

Singer: example of questions raised by positive discrimination to demonstrate controversy of equality

does the principle of equality require that members of disadvantaged minorities be favoured, or does it rule out discrimination entirely, even if the discrimination works in benefit of those disadvantaged?

Singer: what opponents of equality point out

factually untrue that all humans are equal - humans naturally have differing physical characteristics, personality traits, skills etc

Singer: problem with asserting no morally significant difference between races and sexes based on physical traits being independent to a persons traits / essence as an individual

provides no reason to reject inegalitarianism based on traits which do apply to all humans across race and sex boundaries - eg would allow a hierarchical society based on IQ which is 'just as abhorrent as one based on race or sex'

Singer: what kinds of discrimination equal consideration of interests prevents

any kind wherein by those who possess universal human interests eg pain relief are not granted significance of their interests based on factors irrelevant to the fact they possess said interests (includes sexism, racism etc)

Singer: earthquake example demonstrating inegalitarian implication of the principle of equal consideration

may justify inegalitarian treatment in attempts to produce more egalitarian results eg a doctor has two morphine shots, there are two earthquake victims (one in great pain, one in slight pain) - doctor is justified in giving the one in more pain both shots sine it will bring about less difference in degree of suffering of both victims, and the second dose will give more relief to the victim in more pain even after they have received the first shot

Singer: earthquake example of how the principle of equal consideration of interests can 'in special cases widen the gap between two people at different levels of welfare'

doctor only has resources to help one of two earthquake victims (one who has already lost a leg and risks losing a toe from remaining leg, and one who is at risk of losing one of their legs) - doctor is justified in treating less severely injured victim based on that losing a leg is much worse than a toe

Singer: why principle of equal consideration of interests may be too demanding

raises issues in regards to other principles and values - eg would require us to objectively weigh welfare of strangers and family members equally, which goes against general human desire and intuition

Singer's explanation of the principle of declining marginal utility

the more of something someone has, the less they benefit from having even more of it

Aristotle's two kinds of equality

numerical and proportional

numerical equality as defined by Aristotle

treating all persons as indistinguishable, thus treating them identically or granting them the same quantity of good per capita

proportional equality as defined by Aristotle

treating all relevant persons in relation to their due, so that unequal treatment due to persons being unequal in relevant aspects is just