1.1: What Is Development?

Question 1

Principles of the lifespan perspective: Development is lifelong

Answer 1

Lifespan theorists believe that development is life-long, and change is apparent across the lifespan. No single age period is more crucial, characterizes, or dominates human development.

Question 2

Principles of the lifespan perspective: Development is multidirectional and multidimensional

Answer 2

Lifespan researchers hold that different people follow different developmental pathways, and proceed along pathways at different rates. Even within the same person, different dimensions or domains of development can change in different ways.

Question 3

Principles of the lifespan perspective: Development includes both gains and losses

Answer 3

Lifespan theorists do not agree with the traditional view of development that childhood is a period characterized by developmental gains, whereas old age is a time of loss. The lifespan approach holds that at every age, we may show gains in some areas of development, while showing losses in other areas. Every change, whether it is finishing high school, getting married, or becoming a parent, entails both growth and loss.

Question 4

Principles of the lifespan perspective: Development is characterized by plasticity

Answer 4

Plasticity is about malleability, or our potential to change and to follow a wide range of developmental pathways. For instance, plasticity is illustrated in the brain’s ability to learn from experience and the many ways it can recover from injury.

Question 5

Principles of the lifespan perspective: Development is embedded in historical and cultural contexts

Answer 5

Lifespan researchers believe that development is influenced by the many social contexts in which it unfolds. How people develop will depend on their societal and cultural contexts, and on the historical period during which their development takes place.

Question 6

Principles of the lifespan perspective: Development is multiply determined

Answer 6

Lifespan theorists argue that development is caused by multiple factors, and is always shaped by both biological and environmental factors. In addition, the individual plays an active role in their own development.

Question 7

Principles of the lifespan perspective: Development is multidisciplinary

Answer 7

As mentioned at the start of the chapter, human development is such a vast topic of study that it requires the theories, research methods, and knowledge bases of many academic disciplines.

Question 8

Developmental systems of influence: Normative age-graded influences

Answer 8

An age-grade is a specific age group, such as toddler, adolescent, or senior. Humans experience particular age-graded social experiences (e.g., starting school) and biological changes (e.g., puberty).

Question 9

Developmental systems of influence: Normative history-graded influences

Answer 9

The time period in which you are born shapes your experiences. A cohort is a group of people who are born at roughly the same period in a particular society. These people travel through life often experiencing similar historical changes at similar ages. History-graded influences include both environmental determinants (e.g., historical changes in the job market) and biological determinants (e.g., historical changes in life expectancy).

Question 10

Developmental systems of influence: Non-normative influences

Answer 10

People’s development is also shaped by specific influences that are not organized by age or historical time, such as immigration, accidents, or the death of a parent. These can be environmental (e.g., parental mental health issues) or biological (e.g., life threatening illness).

Question 11

Generation Cohorts

Answer 11

Silent Generation (1928 and 1945)
Baby Boomers (1946 and 1964)
Generation X (1965 and 1980)
Millenials (1982 and 1996)
Generation Z (1997 and 2009)
Generation Alpha (2010 and 2024)

Question 12

Domains of Development

Answer 12

We change across three general domains/dimensions; physical, cognitive, and psychosocial. The physical domain includes changes in height and weight, sensory capabilities, the nervous system, as well as the propensity for disease and illness. The cognitive domain encompasses the changes in intelligence, wisdom, perception, problem-solving, memory, and language. The psychosocial domain focuses on changes in emotion, self-perception and interpersonal relationships with families, peers, and friends.

Question 13

Ethnocentrism

Answer 13

This belief that our own culture is superior.

Question 14

Cultural relativity

Answer 14

An appreciation for cultural differences and the understanding that cultural practices are best understood from the standpoint of that particular culture.

Question 15

Lifespan vs. Life expectancy

Answer 15

Lifespan, or longevity, refers to the maximum age any member of a species can reach under optimal conditions. Life expectancy is the average number of years a person born in a particular time period can typically expect to live

Question 16

Chronological age

Answer 16

number of years since your birth

Question 17

Biological age

Answer 17

how quickly the body is aging, determined by nutrition, level of physical activity, sleeping habits, smoking, alcohol consumption, how we mentally handle stress, and the genetic history of our ancestors

Question 18

Psychological age

Answer 18

Our psychologically adaptive capacity compared to others of our chronological age. This includes our cognitive capacity along with our emotional beliefs about how old we are. A 70- year-old might be traveling to new countries, taking courses at college, or starting a new business. Compared to others of our age group, we may be more or less active and excited to meet new challenges.

Question 19

Social age

Answer 19

based on the social norms of our culture and the expectations our culture has for people of our age group. Our culture often reminds us whether we are “on target” or “off target” for reaching certain social milestones, such as completing our education, moving away from home, having children, or retiring from work.

Question 20

Age Periods of Development: Prenatal

Answer 20

0-birth: Starts at conceptions, continues through implantation in the uterine wall by the embryo, and ends at birth. Understanding nutrition, teratogens, or environmental factors that can lead to birth defects, and labor and delivery are primary concerns.

Question 21

Age Periods of Development: Infancy and Toddlerhood

Answer 21

Birth-2: A newborn, with a keen sense of hearing but very poor vision, is transformed into a walking, talking toddler within a relatively short period of time.

Question 22

Age Periods of Development: Early Childhood

Answer 22

2-6: learning language, gaining a sense of self and greater independence, and beginning to understand the workings of the physical world.

Question 23

Age Periods of Development: Middle and Late Childhood

Answer 23

6-12 (puberty): Starts at six years of age and continues until the onset of puberty. much of what children experience at this age is connected to their involvement in the early grades of school. Now the world becomes one of learning and testing new academic skills, and assessing one’s abilities and accomplishments by making comparisons between self and others.

Question 24

Age Periods of Development: Adolescence

Answer 24

Puberty (12) until 18: Growth spurt and sexual maturation, known as puberty. It is also a time of cognitive change as the adolescent begins to think of new possibilities and to consider abstract concepts such as love, fear, and freedom. At the same time, adolescents have a sense of invincibility that puts them at greater risk of accidents (like sexual transmission).

Question 25

Age Periods of Development: Emerging Adulthood

Answer 25

18-25: a transitional time between the end of adolescence and before individuals acquire all the benchmarks of adulthood. Continued identity exploration and preparation for full independence from parents are negotiated. Although at one’s physiological peak, emerging adults are most at risk for involvement in violent crimes and substance abuse.

Question 26

Age Periods of Development: Early Adulthood

Answer 26

25-40/45: Intimate relationships, establishing families (of all shapes and sizes), and work are primary concerns at this stage of life. For adults with children, developmental changes can become organized around the family life cycle.

Question 27

Age Periods of Development: Middle Adulthood

Answer 27

A period in which aging becomes more noticeable and when many people are at their peak of productivity in love and work. At this age, some people are negotiating adolescent children and aging parents at the same time.

Question 28

Age Periods of Development: Late Adulthood

Answer 28

Two categories (Young-old: 65-84 years and the oldest-old: 85+): the young-old are still relatively healthy, productive, active, and the majority continue to live independently. With both age groups the risks of diseases such as arteriosclerosis, cancer, and cerebral vascular disease increase substantially.

Question 29

Meta-theories of human development

Answer 29

Sets of assumptions people hold about the nature of humans and the meaning of development— what it looks like, how it happens, what causes it.

Question 30

What kinds of assumptions guide the study of human development?: Assumptions about human nature

Answer 30

Whether people are born as blank slates (tabula rasa) or whether people are inherently good or inherently bad.

Question 31

What kinds of assumptions guide the study of human development?: Assumptions about the causes of development

Answer 31

Whether development is determined by nature (genes, biology) or determined by nurture (environment, learning).

Question 32

What kinds of assumptions guide the study of human development?: Assumptions about the role of the individual

Answer 32

Whether people are passive participants, reacting to external forces or whether they are active in choosing and shaping their own development.

Question 33

What kinds of assumptions guide the study of human development?: Assumptions about stability vs. change

Answer 33

Whether traits, characteristics, and experiences early in life have permanent effects or whether people are malleable and open to change throughout life.

Question 34

What kinds of assumptions guide the study of human development?:
Assumptions about continuity vs. discontinuity

Answer 34

Whether development involves quantitative incremental change or qualitative shifts.

Question 35

What kinds of assumptions guide the study of human development?: Assumptions about universality vs. context specificity

Answer 35

Whether development follows a universal pathway or depends more on specific experiences and environmental contexts.

Question 36

Discontinuous development vs. Continuous development

Answer 36

Does growth occur in distinct stages with qualitative changes (Discontinuous) or does growth and change happen gradually over time (Continuous)?

Question 37

Guiding meta-theories in human development: Maturational meta-theory

Answer 37

People as seeds: People are assumed to be passive, the product of their genes. The environment can provide support and nutrition (rain, sun, and soil), but can’t change a person’s nature (poppy seeds will always produce poppies). The role of the person is to be reactive—to their genes.

Question 38

Guiding meta-theories in human development: Mechanistic meta-theory

Answer 38

People as machines: People are assumed to be made up of pieces that can be studied apart from the rest of them. They are passive, with the energy coming from outside (like gasoline for a car). Development is continuous and people do not develop into something else (a car stays a car). The person can only react to the environment that is controlling them (like a car responding to the gas pedal or the brake). All causes for development come from the outside, from environmental forces.

Question 39

Guiding meta-theories in human development: Organismic meta-theory

Answer 39

People as butterflies: People are assumed to be made up of structured wholes. Their nature is to be curious, interested, and open to growth. They are active and develop through discontinuous qualitatively different stages (like the caterpillar, chrysalis, and butterfly). People construct their own next steps in development based on the affordances and opportunities provided by the environment. Development is caused by imbalances that lead to structural reorganizations. Development is progressive (gets better) and only goes in one direction (from caterpillar toward butterfly) and not the reverse.

Question 40

Guiding meta-theories in human development: Contextual meta-theory

Answer 40

People as a game of tennis or dance: A back and forth movement between the person and his or her context, both of which are assumed to be proactive and acting on their own agendas. Development can be continuous or discontinuous depending on how the game is played. Both person and environment are active partners in the system, which can lead to transformations in both.

Question 41

Historical Theories of Development: Preformationist View

Answer 41

Well into the 18th century, children were merely thought of as little adults. Preformationism, or the belief that a tiny, fully formed human is implanted in the sperm or egg at conception and then grows in size until birth, was the predominant early theory. Children were believed to possess all their sensory capabilities, emotions, and mental aptitude at birth, and as they developed these abilities unfolded on a predetermined schedule (Thomas, 1979). The environment was thought to play no role in determining development.

Question 42

John Locke (1632-1704)

Answer 42

Behavioral psych: refuted the idea of innate knowledge and instead proposed that children are largely shaped by their social environments. He believed that through education a child learns socialization, or what is needed to be an appropriate member of society.

Question 43

Jean-Jacques Rousseau (1712-1778)

Answer 43

Developmental psych: believed that children were not just little adults or blank slates, but instead developed according to a natural plan which unfolded in different stages. He did not believe in teaching them the correct way to think, but believed children should be allowed to think by themselves according to their own ways and an inner, biological timetable

Question 44

Arnold Gesell (1880-1961)

Answer 44

Believed that child development was activated by genes (maturation). Further, he believed that development unfolded in fixed sequences, and he opposed efforts to teach children ahead of schedule as he believed they will engage in behaviors when their nervous systems had sufficiently matured.

Question 45

Sigmund Freud (1856-1939)

Answer 45

Psychodynamic & psychosexual psychology: importance of early childhood experiences in shaping our personality and behavior. In our natural state, we are biological beings and are driven primarily by instincts. During childhood, however, we begin to become social beings as we learn how to manage our instincts and transform them into socially acceptable behaviors. His assumptions were that personality formed during the first few years of life.

Question 46

Erik Erikson (1902-1994)

Answer 46

Psychosocial psychology: Erikson’s Psychosocial stages:

Trust versus Mistrust: Birth - 12 to 18 months: The child develops a feeling of trust in caregivers.

Autonomy versus Shame/Doubt: 18 months - 3 years: The child learns what can and cannot be controlled and develops a sense of free will.

Initiative versus Guilt: 3 - 6 years: The child learns to become independent by exploring, manipulating, and taking action.

Industry versus Inferiority: 6 - 12 years: The child learns to do things well or correctly according to standards set by others, particularly in school.

Identity versus Role Confusion: 12 - 18 years: The adolescent develops a well-defined and positive sense of self in relationship to others.

Intimacy versus Isolation - 19 to 40 years: The person develops the ability to give and receive love and to make long-term commitments.

Generativity versus Stagnation: 40 to 65 years: The person develops an interest in guiding the development of the next generation, often by becoming a parent.

Ego Integrity versus Despair: 65 to death: The person develops acceptance of how one has lived.

Question 47

Learning Theory aka Behaviorism

Answer 47

Not possible to objectively study the mind, psychologists should limit their attention to the study of behavior itself. Burrhus Frederick (B. F.) Skinner (1904–1990), expanded the principles of behaviorism and brought them to the attention of the public at large.

Question 48

Social Learning Theory

Answer 48

Learning by watching others: developed by Albert Bandura (1977). His theory calls our attention to the ways in which many of our actions are not learned through conditioning, as suggested by Skinner. Young children frequently learn behaviors through imitation. Especially when children do not know what else to do, they learn by modeling or copying the behavior of others.

Question 49

Reciprocal determinism

Answer 49

We are not just the product of our surroundings, rather we influence our surroundings. There is interplay between our personality and the way we interpret events and how they influence us (ex: parents not only influence their child’s environment, perhaps intentionally through the use of reinforcement, etc., but children influence parents as well. Parents may respond differently with their first child than with their fourth).

Question 50

Jean Piaget (1896-1980)

Answer 50

He believed that children’s intellectual skills change over time and that maturation, rather than training, brings about that change. Children of differing ages interpret the world differently. Piaget theorized that children progressed through four stages of cognitive development (see Table 1.4).

Question 51

Piaget’s Stages of Cognitive Development

Answer 51

Sensorimotor - Birth-2 years: Children experience the world through their fundamental senses of seeing, hearing, touching, and tasting - Object permanence

Preoperational - 2-7 years: Children acquire the ability to internally represent the world through language and mental imagery. They also start to see the world from other people’s perspectives - Theory of mind; rapid increase in language ability

Concrete operational: 7-11 years - Children become able to think logically. They can increasingly perform operations on objects that are real - Conservation

Formal operational: 11 years- adulthood - Adolescents can think systematically, can reason about abstract concepts, and can understand ethics and scientific reasoning - Abstract logic

Question 52

Lev Vygotsky (1896-1934)

Answer 52

Developed sociocultural theory which emphasizes the importance of culture and interaction in the development of cognitive abilities. Vygotsky differed with Piaget in that he believed that a person not only has a set of abilities, but also a set of potential abilities that can be realized if given the proper guidance from others.

Question 53

Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005) and the Ecological Systems Theory: Microsystem

Answer 53

Includes the individual’s setting and those who have direct, significant contact with the person, such as parents or siblings. The input of those is modified by the cognitive and biological state of the individual as well. These influence the person’s actions, which in turn influence systems operating on him or her.

Question 54

Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005) and the Ecological Systems Theory: Mesosystem

Answer 54

Includes the larger organizational structures, such as school, the family, or religion. These institutions impact the microsystems just described. The philosophy of the school system, daily routine, assessment methods, and other characteristics can affect the child’s self-image, growth, sense of accomplishment, and schedule thereby impacting the child, physically, cognitively, and emotionally.

Question 55

Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005) and the Ecological Systems Theory: Exosystem

Answer 55

Includes the larger contexts of community. A community’s values, history, and economy can impact the organizational structures it houses. Mesosystems both influence and are influenced by the exosystem.

Question 56

Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005) and the Ecological Systems Theory: Macrosystem

Answer 56

Includes the cultural elements, such as global economic conditions, war, technological trends, values, philosophies, and a society’s responses to the global community.

Question 57

Urie Bronfenbrenner (1917-2005) and the Ecological Systems Theory: Chronosystem

Answer 57

The historical context in which these experiences occur. This relates to the different generational time periods previously discussed, such as the baby boomers and millennials.

Question 58

Naïve Meta-theories

Answer 58

Personal convictions are based on naïve meta-theories of human development, gripping assumptions underlie these convictions.

Question 59

Cross-sectional design

Answer 59

A research method that involves collecting data from individuals or groups at a single point in time to analyze and compare different variables or characteristics simultaneously.

Question 60

Advantages of Cross-sectional designs

Answer 60

Provides an overview of age differences

Suggests windows where changes may be occurring

Quick & inexpensive to conduct

Question 61

Fatal Flaw and disadvantages of cross-sectional design

Answer 61

Fatal Flaw:

What looks like age differences could really be cohort or generational differences (confound)

Disadvantages:

Pattern of age differences might not hold at other times of measurement (generalizability)

No information about age changes or effects of early experiences

Question 62

Longitudinal design

Answer 62

A research approach that involves collecting data from the same subjects or groups over an extended period to examine changes, developments, or trends over time.

Question 63

Advantages of Longitudinal designs

Answer 63

Provides information about actual change with age

Shows how people can develop differentially

Reveals connections between early and later development

Question 64

Fatal flaw and disadvantages of Longitudinal designs

Answer 64

Fatal Flaw:

What looks like age changes could really be historical changes (confound)

Disadvantages:

Pattern of age changes might not hold for other cohorts (generalizability)

Have to deal with effects of repeated testing and drop out

Measures are also aging, may be obsolete

Expensive and time consuming to conduct

Question 65

What is a cross-sequential design

Answer 65

A research approach that combines elements of both cross-sectional and longitudinal designs, collecting data from individuals of different ages at multiple points in time to study both age-related and time-related changes.