1.1 The impact of war and the political crises

Question 1

1.Weimar Revolution: What were the October Reforms?

Answer 1

Under Ludendorff’s recommendation, Kaiser begins constitutional reform (that somewhat ends his autocratic rule). This was a ‘revolution from above’.
October 1st: Prince Max Von Baden became Chancellor.
He is responsible to the Reichstag, & established a new Gov. based on majority parties.
Armed Forces were put in control of the civil government.

Question 2

1.Weimar Revolution: What was the Peace Note? Why was it refused?

Answer 2

On the 3rd Oct, Baden writes to Wilson asking for an armistice. It took three weeks for Wilson to resign, and his reply (on the 24th Oct) demanded that they:
-fully democratise their political system (ending the Kaiser’s rule, essentially
-evacuate all occupied territory
-call an end to submarine warfare
This was too much for Ludendorff to accept & he tried to gather military support for resistance, but this failed & he fled to Sweden (on the 26th Oct)

Question 3

1.Weimar Revolution: Why was the Peace Note so controversial?

Answer 3

-The German people (Volk) and the armed forces were under the impression that they were going to win the war - this was a huge shock for the general public.
-Wilson’s terms were incredibly severe, his 14 points (Jan 8th 1918) had made them think he would be somewhat lenient.
-Overall undermined any respect left for the Kaiser & military/political leaders.

Question 4

1.Weimar Revolution: How did people respond to the calls for armistice? What happened on 22nd October?

Answer 4

-Civilians who had suffered through food shortages were no longer prepared to show restraint.
-Soldiers & sailors lost respect for their officers.
-Kaiser was seen as an obstacle to peace by the public, but he still refused to abdicate.
22nd October:
-During a strike in Friedrichshafen, Workers shouted “The Kaiser is a Scoundrel”, and “Up with the German Republic”.

Question 5

1.Weimar Revolution: What was the inciting incident, on 28th October?

Answer 5

-German Navy’s High Command ordered ships from Wilhelmshaven to attack British Ships in the English Channel.
-This was a futile act of final resistance, and arguably humiliating.
-The crews of the two cruisers refused to obey the orders, starting a naval mutiny, which was the beginning of the revolutionary movement.

Question 6

1.Weimar Revolution: What happened as a result of the Naval Mutiny?

Answer 6

-3rd November, sailors at Kiel mutinied against their officers & took control of the base.
-4th November, revolt spread to the city: workers’ and soldiers’ councils were established.
-Revolt had spread to many ports & cities.
-By Nov 6th there were w&s councils across the whole country- most members of these didn’t want communist revolution, they just wanted the Kaiser to abdicate.

Question 7

1.Weimar Revolution: Detail the events of the revolution from 8th-9th November.

Answer 7

-8th November, Bavaria is proclaimed as a republic and they depose the monarchy. This was the “decisive moment in the German Revolution”. Baden realises he has lost control completely.
-9th November, SPD call on workers in Berlin to join a general strike to force the Kaiser to abdicate. They also threatened to withdraw support from Baden’s government unless the Kaiser abdicated within 24hours.
-General Groener told the Kaiser he would no longer fight for him, leaving him no choice but to abdicate.
-Max knew he could not govern w/o the SPD, so when the Kaiser still refused he released a press statement saying that the Kaiser had abdicated, and then resigned himself.
-Ebert becomes Chancellor.
-Phillip Scheidemann stood on the balcony of the Reichstag, and declared that Germany was now a republic.

Question 8

1.Weimar Revolution: Detail the events from the 10th-11th November.

Answer 8

-10th Nov, Ebert-Groener Pact is signed. Ebert now has the army’s support
-The Kaiser flees to The Netherlands, and is forced to sign his abdication on the journey.
-11th Nov, Ebert’s new government sign the Armistice, and war ends.

Question 9

1.Political Crisis: What was Ebert concerned about?

Answer 9

His government had been formed as a result of revolutionary action, and therefore lacked democratic legitimacy (despite Ebert’s SPD making up the majority of the Reichstag.
Hence, he wanted to form a new constitution & a an election for the Constituent Assembly.

Question 10

1.Political Crisis: Who were the Spartacist League? What did they become?

Answer 10

-Socialist revolutionary group formed in 1916 as a product of the SPD, they later became the KPD
-Led by Karl Liebknecht & Rosa Luxemburg
-Wanted a Soviet Republican Government that was controlled by workers’ and soldiers’ councils.
-They had membership of about 5,000, and would often be joined by workers in street rallies and demonstrations.

Question 11

1.Political Crisis: Who were the USPD?

Answer 11

-Breakaway group from the SPD, formed in 1917 & led by Hugo Hasse
-Radical Socialists who wanted a socialist government, governed by workers’ and soldiers’ councils in conjunction with a Parliament.
-Had membership of about 3,500, which had grown over 1918 due to war-weariness.

Question 12

1.Political Crisis: Who were the SPD?

Answer 12

-Marxist Socialist Party, formed in 1875, and committed to revolution.
-They had wanted to establish a socialist republic by the creation of a parliamentary democracy.
-Led by Friedrich Ebert and Philipp Scheidemann.
-They largely appealed to working-class voters, with a membership of 1 million, and became the largest party in the Reichstag in 1912.

Question 13

1.Political Crisis: What were some examples of pressure from the Left? What did they want?

Answer 13

-W&S councils put pressure on Ebert, as they had essentially run the early stages of the Revolution. They therefore felt they deserved a political voice.
-On 22nd November, agreement was reached that the government only exercised power on behalf of, and in the name of the councils.
-Had wanted aristocratic estates to be broken up; the army, civil service, & judiciary democratised; and key industries nationalised.

Question 14

1.Political Crisis: What were some examples of pressure from the right? What was the Ebert-Groener pact?

Answer 14

-Ebert relied on the army (which was comprised of many right-wing, anti-republicans) for the survival of his government.
-Wanted to prevent the revolution going any further and were worried that Germany would follow the path of the Bolsheviks
-10th November, Ebert-Groener (General Groener, took Ludendorff’s place after he fled to Sweden) was signed, dictating that Ebert would resist the demands of w&s councils to democratise the army, and to defend Germany against communism.

Question 15

Constitution & Government: What were some undemocratic elements f government in 1914?
(mention Kaiser, Chancellor, Reichsrat)

Answer 15

Kaiser: Hereditary monarch, he could dissolve the Reichstag, appoint & dismiss government, and had total control over foreign policy & the army
Chancellor: Appointed & dismissed by Kaiser, proposed new laws to the Reichstag. They did not rely on the support of the Reichstag to stay in government.
Reichsrat: Had veto on legislation passed by Reichstag, they were an assembly of 26 state governors.

Question 16

Constitution & Government: What were some democratic elements of government in 1914? (Reichstag, Electorate, and Parties)

Answer 16

Reichstag: Members, called deputies, were elected by universal male suffrage, they could agree/reject laws proposed by Kaiser, but could not remove the Chancellor or the Government.
Electorate: All men over 25 could vote for Reichstag elections every 3 years, and local state assemblies. They had a written constitution, but no statement of individual rights.
Parties: Various political parties, (Conservatives, National Liberals, Progressives, SPD, Z, two of which lasted in Weimar.)

Question 17

Constitution & Government: How did Government change after the revolution? (Pres, Chancellor, Reichstag)

Answer 17

Pres: Elected by voters every 7 years. He could appoint & dismiss the Chancellor, dissolve the Reichstag, and had control over the army.
Chancellor: Had to have the confidence of the Reichstag, and proposed new laws to them. He had to have a 50% majority in order to be appointed.
Reichstag: Elected every 4 years, using proportional representation- function stayed similar.

Question 18

Constitution & Government: How did Gov change after the Revolution? (Reichsrat, Electorate, Rights)

Answer 18

Reichsrat: Assembly of 67 state representatives, they could no longer veto laws, only give advice.
Electorate: Everyone (incl women) over 20 could vote in presidential, Reichstag, and state elections- revolutionary compared to other Euro powers.
Rights: Statement of fundamental rights was included in the constitution.

Question 19

Constitution & Government: What was proportional representation? How did it work?

Answer 19

Voting system adopted by German Republic.
-The country was split up into 35 electoral districts (with just <1million voters in each district).
-For every 60,000 votes in a district, a party gained one deputy.
-If they got 30,000 votes in multiple districts, this would be added up and result in some deputies.
-There were many parties to choose from (in Schleswig-Holstein in 1920, there were 29)

Question 20

Constitution & Government: What were the pros & cons of proportional representation?

Answer 20

Pros:
-No wasted votes, so people could vote more freely
-Smaller parties had actual chance of gaining deputies
-Believed to be more ‘fair’ overall.
Cons:
-Many small parties were anti-republican, and were trying to exploit the system
-It became very difficult for parties to gain majorities, there was never a majority in parliament.
-Constant coalitions & changing numbers of deputies meant that it was unstable and reshuffled a lot

Question 21

Constitution & Government: What were some non-socialist political parties?

Answer 21

-Centre Party (or Z) were formed in 1870 to protect the interests of Catholics in the Reich. They had support in Bavaria & the Rhineland. They were in favour of the democratic constitution.
-DDP, a left leaning party with middle class support.
-DNVP, Nationalist party, with support from small business owners and landowners.
-DVP, right-leaning liberal party, with support from upper-middle class & business interests, who opposed the new gov, but were wiling to cooperate.

Question 22

Constitution & Government: What were some key articles of the Constitution?

Answer 22

A.47: Pres has supreme command over the armed forces.
-A.48: Presidential decrees can be used to bypass parliament in a case of emergency, which was used 136 times by Ebert. (reserve powers)
-A.109: All Germans are equal under the law, with fundamentally the same rights & duties.
-A.117: Freedom of speech, censorship is forbidden.
Part Two is titled the “Fundamental rights and duties of Germans” -> BILL OF RIGHTS

Question 23

Constitution & Government: What were some strengths of the constitution?

Answer 23

-Provided the largest electorate of its time (men & women, Britain don’t wholly get this until 1928)
-Full democracy in local government, as well as locally.
-The rights of individuals were progressive & clear (“personal liberty is inviolable”)
-Referendums could be called if 1/10 of the electorate, the Reichsrat, or the Pres. called for them.

Question 24

Constitution & Government: What were some weaknesses of the constitution?

Answer 24

-Led to coalitions, which generated massive instability.
-Led to proliferation of small parties, allowing them to gain publicity and promote anti-democratic ideology, despite being in the democratic Reichstag.

Question 25

Undemocratic Institutions: How was the army still undemocratic?

Answer 25

-Leaders of the army were determined to preserve their independence of the second empire.
-Officer Corps from the Second Empire stayed in tact, so they were mainly right-wing.
-Hans von Seeckt was appointed Commander of the Reichswehr in 1920, under his command they became privileged elites, who were loyal to the republic.
-They acted a lot harder against left-wing uprising, then right-wing. In the Kapp Putsch, they wouldn’t fight back as, “troops do not fire at troops.”

Question 26

Undemocratic Institutions: How was the Civil Service still undemocratic?

Answer 26

-Under the Weimar constitution, they were given the guarantee of ‘well-earned right’ and freedom of political opinion, as long as it didn’t conflict with their loyalty to the state.
-They were predominantly aristocratic, anti-republicans, and were completely in charge of government administration
-Coalitions and changing ministers meant that the top civil servants were incredibly power.
-Wolfgang Kapp, civil servant, becomes highly involved in Kapp Putsch (1920).

Question 27

Undemocratic Institutions: Judiciary

Answer 27

-A.54 gave independence of the judges.
-Weimar judges had served during the Second Empire, so were staunch monarchists, and anti-democrats. This resulted in clear bias.
-Rosa Luxemburg and Karl Liebknecht (left-wing) are executed, but Hitler (right-wing) gets 5 years in prison (with parole after 9 months).
-Penal Code stipulates that anyone trying to overthrow the constitution should face life imprisonment- but they did not follow this completely.