11: Motivation and Emotion

Question 1

What is motivation?

Answer 1

Motivation:

• Influences direction, persistence, and vigor of goal-directed behaviour
  
  • Goals can be anything from “being the best at X” to simply getting something to eat

Question 2

How do people become motivated?

Answer 2

Drive Theory:

• Homeostasis: Internal physiological equilibrium (balance) that the body strives to maintain
• Disrupted homeostasis ⇒ “drives” (internal tension) ⇒ motivated to act in ways to reduce tension (drive)
  
  • Drive helps to maintain homeostasis
  • eg. tissue deficits ⇒ “drive” to eat
• Allostasis: motivation in anticipation of future needs

Incentive Theory:

• environmental factor “pulls” you to do X
  
  • You want the incentive, therefore you do X
  • eg. getting good grade = incentive to study
• not neccessarily biological need, but a desire

Some behaviours (eg. eating) can be explained by drive AND/OR incentive theory

Expectancy Theory:

• some incentives hold more “value”
• motivation = expectancy x incentive value
• Expectancy: how much you believe a given behaviour will actually lead to the goal (incentive)
  
  • eg. Beth: minimal effort ⇒ C grade (low incentive)
    Harry: minimal effort ⇒ C grade (low expectancy)
    James: studies hard ⇒ A grade (high on BOTH)

Question 3

Differentiate between extrinsic and intrinsic motivation.
What is the overjustification effect?

Answer 3

Extrinsic: motivation to obtain an external reward, or avoid external punishment

• playing high school football to seem cool
• painting to sell the work

Intrinsic: performing an activity because you want to (it’s enjoyable); internal motivation

• playing high school football because you enjoy it
• painting as a hobby

**Overjustification effect: **

• Some bheaviours can be partially motivated by extrinsic *and *intrinsic factors
• Giving a person an extrinsic reward (other than verbal praise) for something they intrinsically enjoy tend to decrease intrinsic motivation and also the frequency of the behaviour

Question 4

What are the 2 types of needs of motivation?
Hint: Think Maslow’s Hierarchy of Needs

Answer 4

Deficiency needs:

• motivate actions related to physical, social survival
  
  • food, safety, affiliation, approval

Growth needs:

• motivate us to develop our potential
  
  • knowledge, beauty, self-actualization
• Self-Actualization is the ultimate human motive - the need to be very best version of oneself

Question 5

What is the self-determination theory?

Answer 5

Self-Determination Theory

Modern humanistic theory

Basically, says that psychological well-being requires you to feel in control of your life - esp the 3 needs:
1. Competence

• need to master new challenges, skills

​2. Autonomy

• need to be in control of your own decisions
  (free choice, self-determination)

3. Relatedness

• desire to form meaningful bonds with others

Question 6

What is a basal metabolism?

Answer 6

Metabolism:

• Rate of energy/caloric utilization
• Basal metabolism:
  
  • ​resting, continuous energy needs of body cells
    
    • ie. number of calories burned while you are at rest, in a neutral-temperature env
  • ​Accounts for ~66% of body’s energy demands

Question 7

What is the difference between Set Point and Settling Point Theories?

Answer 7

Set Point Theory:

• Idea that there is a given point (weight range, fat lvl) that each of our bodies “thinks” is optimal
• Essentially, despite your diet, your body tries to return you back to these values
  
  • diet, diet, diet ⇒ binge, binge, binge

Settling Point Theory:

• Similar idea, but body doesn’t return to set point, but “settles” on a new point
  
  • eat little → more efficient metabolism → stop loss
  • eat much → less efficient metabolism → stop gain

Question 8

How do the following molecules affect hunger/satiety:

• Glucose, CCK, Ghrelin, Leptin, Neuropeptide Y

Answer 8

​Glucose:

• Body’s (and esp. brain’s) major source of immediately-useable fuel (some stored)
• Hypothalamus, liver monitor blood glucose lvls
  
  • when low, liver converts stored molecules to glucose
  • drop-rise pattern of blood glucose seems to be involved in initiating hunger

CCK (cholecystokinin):

• Hormone released by small intestine → brain (satiety)
• Act as appetite suppressant

Ghrelin:

• Released by small intestine & stomach
• MAJOR signal for hunger in humans
  
  • Increases hunger; also inc thoughts/mental images of food (esp. of favourite meal)
  • Highest lvls before meals; inc wi/ pictures/smell

Leptin:

• Hormone secreted by fat cells → brain
• Decreases appetite & inc energy expenditure
  
  • Not a short-term signals of fullness (like CCK)

Neuropeptide Y:

• Secreted in paraventricular nucleus(PVN) - structure within hypothalamus
  
  • PVN integrate both short-term and long-term signals to influence metabolism
  • Neuropeptide Y - a powerful appetite stimulant
    
    • Rats w/ 3 injections/day to PVN tripled fat mass and got to 6x their weight in 10 days!
  • Leptin inhibits neurons that release neuropeptide Y

Question 9

How do stress, attention, taste, and variety affect food consumption?

Answer 9

Stress:

• Stress modulates ghrelin → inc hunger
• Recall allostasis:
  
  • Stress suggests that you view an upcoming situation as somehow threatening
  • Evolutionarily, we typically deal with this by stokcing up on food to better meet the threat

**Attention: **

• Distracted eating → typically eat more
• Wansink et al. (2005) - bottomless soup bowl
  
  • “eat as much as you like, until you feel full”
  • Half of subjects had the bowl continually refilled from a tube at the bottom of the bowl, without them noticing
    
    • Ate 70% more than those who refilled own bowl
    • Yet, felt no more full and believed they ate the same amount as the others

**Food Taste & Variety: **

• Food taste:
  
  • _​_Good taste:
    
    • positive reinforcement for eating
    • usu inc food consumption
    • dopamine, anterior cingulate cortex
• Food variety:
  
  • _​_Same thing over & over:
    
    • loses incentive value
  • Greater variety (within OR between meals)
    
    • consume more food

Question 10

Describe social facilitation, modelling, and impression management.

Answer 10

Social Context:

Social facilitation:

• Hosts, grandmothers, etc. encourages ppl to take 2nd/3rd helping → eat more
• More time spent at the table → continue to nibble

Modelling:

• Eat what other people eat → more OR less
  
  • ie. interview lunch vs. family meal

Impression management:

• Self-conscious control of behaviour so that one will be seen a certain way → typically eat less

Question 11

What is Unit Bias?

Answer 11

Unit Bias:

• Tendency to assume that the unit for sale is an appropriate amount to consume

Question 12

When men & women are asked to rate the ideal male and female bodies (and what the other sex thinks is ideal) what are the trends?

Answer 12

Fallon & Rozin (1985)

Women’s beliefs:

• think female ideal is quite thin
• think men prefer thinner than they actually do
• think that they are quite a bit heavier than ideal

Men’s beliefs:

• think male ideal is quite muscular
• think women prefer more muscular than they do
• think that they are quite close to the ideal

Results:

• men’s belief keeps them satisfied with their figure
• women’s beliefs → feel pressure to lose weight
  
  • ppl who perceive themselves as heavy have lower self-esteem
  • shows that a disproportionate # of women think they are heavier than they “should be”
• Objectification Theory:
  
  • ​Says Western culture teaches women to view their bodies as objects (much like an external observer)
  • Restrict food in order to restore self-esteem

Question 13

What are 3 reasons for the societal trend to increasing obesity?

Answer 13

Obesity:

Based on _Body Mass Index (BMI): _

Weight (kg)/ [height (m) x height (m)] = kg/m²

Overweight: BMI = 25 - 29.9

Obese: BMI = 30 <

Societal trend due to:

• Abundance of cheap, high-fat food
• Culture emphasizes “value” (supersize)
• Technological advances → more sedentary

Question 14

What is activity anorexia? Is exercise a punishment or reward?

Answer 14

Anorexia nervosa

• Self-starvation
• Intense dissatisfaction with body
• Denial of consequences of extremely low weight

“Activity Anorexia”

• When body weight drops, both food AND exercise become more reinforcing
  
  • Rats: limited food, unlimited exercise → spiral
  • Wheel running is reinf.
    BUT other studies show conditioned taste aversion (CTA) to tastes followed by exercise
    STILL more studies show that rats show a conditioned place preference (CPP) for rooms in which they exercised vs didn’t exercise
    
    • Naloxone injection bloks opioid receptors (incl. endorphins), and also blocks CPP formation
    • Exercise → endogenous opioid receptors
      
      • Drugs (like opiates, amphetamines) also show conditioned aversions AND preferences

Question 15

What are the 4 common reasons/motivations for sex in undergrads?

Answer 15

1. For physical reasons

• “the person’s physical appearnce turned me on”
• “I want to achieve an orgasm”

2. To help attain a goal

• “I wanted to get a raise”
• “I wanted to hurt an enemy”

3. For emotional reasons

• “I realized I was in love”
• “I wanted to intensify my relationship”

4. Because of insecurity

• “I felt obligated to”
• “I wanted to be nice”

Question 16

Which groups of people engage in more frequent intercourse? masturbation?

Answer 16

Kinsey Reports (and other surveys):

Frequency of intercourse:

• Non-cohabitating (more ppl “never”/”few times a yr/month”)
• Married (more ppl “few times a month/week”)
• Cohabitating (more ppl “few times a week/4+/week”)

Frequency of masturbation:​

• Once or more per week: Men: 25% Women: 10%
• Once or more per yr: Men: 60% Women: 45%

Question 17

What are the 4 phases of the sexual response cycle?

Answer 17

Masters & Johnson (1953):

4 Stage Sexual Response Cycle

1. Excitement phase

• all interesting parts begin to swell (vasocongestion)

2. Plateau phase

• respiration, heart rate, muscle tension continue building

3. Orgasm phase

• rhythmic contractions

4. Resolution phase

• rapid return to “normal”
• males experience a refractory period

Question 18

What roles do the hypothalamus, pituitary gland, and gonads play in the production/release of sex hormones?

• What is the difference between androgens & estrogens.
• Who produces each? Which is more responsible for sexual motivation?

Answer 18

Hypothalamus controls pituitary gland

Pituitary gland regulates gonadotropin secretion

Gonadotropins signal goands (testes/ovaries) to release **sex hormones **

Sex hormones:

• Androgens
  
  • ​so-called “masculine” hormones
  • eg. testosterone
• Estrogens
  
  • ​so-called “feminine” hormones
  • eg. estradiol
• Both men AND women produce androgens AND estrogens

Question 19

Give an example of organizational vs. activational effects of sex hormones

Answer 19

Hormones have 2 types of effect:

Organizational effects: relatively permanent effects on the structure of the body & brain

• eg. critical period for male genital development
• Embryos form primite gonad → testes OR ovaries
  
  • XY → develop testes → produce androgens
    
    • Lots of androgens during critical period → male genitalia + other male-typical traits
  • XX → few androgens → female genitalia

Activational effects: immediate, temporary effects that come & go with hrmone presence/absence

• Activational effects of sex hormones start at puberty:
  
  • mass production of sex hormones
  • still, relatively small activational effects on sexual desire
  • androgens most influential in sexual desire (for both men & women)
    
    • baseline level of testosterone (T) is needed, but not much yo-yo-ing as long as you are above this level
    • Remove T-producing organs → gradual drop in “drive”

Question 20

Give an example of how psychology can activate/inhibit desire

Answer 20

Arousal is not just physiological…

• 50% of men, 20% of women fantasize about sex at least once per day (ages 18-59)
  
  • Triggers arousal, possibly organsm in some ppl
• Most ppl fantasize at least occasionally during sex as well
  
  • Not typically a sign of dis-satisfaction
  • Rather, more sexually active ppl fantasize more

Inhibiting desire:

• “turned off” by something a partner does
• stress, anger, distrust, fatigue & other issues
  
  • not only inhibit desire, but can lead to temporary inability to become aroused
• 1 in 3 women, 1 in 6 men lack desire
• some have desire, but have difficulty becoming/staying aroused:
  
  • Sexual Dysfunction: chronic, impaired sexual functioning that distresses the person
    
    • can be caused by injuires, diseases, drugs…
    • can be psychological:
      
      • performance anxiety
      • prior sexual assault/abuse

Question 21

Relate the terms “norms” “gender roles” and “sex guilt” to each other

Answer 21

• Marquesas Islands vs. Inis Beag (textbook)
• Gender Roles: Accepted attitudes & behaviours for males and females in a given society
• Sex Guilt: negative emotions/feelings for having violated culturally-accepted standards for appropriate sexual behaviour

Question 22

Which types of erotica/pornography are arousing to both sexes?

Answer 22

• Watching, reading, listening can trigger arousal
• Watching a person undress is 2nd most appealing activity for men, women
• Heiman (1975):
  
  • Students listen to audiobooks:
    erotic vs. non-erotic, romantic vs. non-erotic/romantic
  • Measured genital, and self-reported arousal
  • Men AND women became aroused by explicit sex descriptions, but not other conditions
  • Highest (for both) when story focused on female and she initiated the sex
• Pornography
  
  • Those chosen by guys → men enjoy, women don’t
  • Chosen by girls → both enjoy (no sex difference in arousal levels)

Question 23

Can exposure to lots of porn change behaviour?

Answer 23

Exposure to “normal” porn:

• higher likelihood of overt sexual activity (for a few hours)
• no correlation bw avilability & sex crimes
• sex offenders don’t tend to have earlier/more extensive exposure during childhood/adolescence

Exposure to “agressive” porn:

• agressive porn: depicts violence against women
  
  • rape myth: initial resistance - force - enjoyment?!
• 2 Theories:
• Social Learning Theory:
  
  • ​Predicts porn increases agression
  • Recall Bobo doll experiment; observational learning
• Psychodynamic Theory:
  
  • ​*Catharsis Principle: *inborn agressive and sexual desires build up and up and up..
  • …and get (safely) released by viewing (or fantasizing about) such acts
  • Predicts porn decreases aggression

Question 24

What are the 3 dimensions of sexual orientation? And what are some of the determinants of sexual orientation?

Answer 24

• Self-identity​
• Sexual Attraction
• Sexual Behaviour

Determinants of sexual orientation:

• Environment?
  
  • No single social, psychological cause
  • Only one pattern: feeling different, and egaging in gender-nonconforming behaviours
• Biological?
  
  • Some genetic basis
  • greater genetic similarity → higher concordance

Question 25

What is the difference between motive for success and fear of failure? ## Footnote

Answer 25

McClelland, Atkinson, et al (1950s) **Achievement Need:** desire to accomplish tasks, attain excellence Can be driven in one (or both) of two ways: _1. Motive for Success_ * Want to master a skill, or be (seen as?) the best _2. Fear of Failure_ * Avoid making mistakes, don’t want to be bad (or seen poorly)

Question 26

What differences exist between high & low achievement need people? * Under what conditions is there a performance difference? * When do high need people try hardest? * What difficulty of tasks are chosen? * What culture and parenting styles influence this?

Answer 26

High achievers vs. Low achievers * High achievers perform no better (& try no harder) than low achievers when a taks is relaxed/easy * High achievers try hardest when: * think they are personally responsible for outcome * perceive some risk of not succeeding * may receive performance feedback * _Parenting & Achievement Need:_ * Parents encourage/reward achievement, but don't punish failure → high A.N. * Parents assume success, punish failure → low A.N. * _Culture & Achivement Need:_ * _​_Individualistic cultures → desire personal success * Collectivist cultures → meet family expectations

Question 27

What are the 4 achievement goals? Examples? ## Footnote

Answer 27

**Achievement Goal Theory** * **Mastery **vs. **Performance** * **​**i.e. intrinsic/extrinsic * **Approach **vs. **Avoidance** * **​**i.e. motive for success/fear of failure Combine into 4 types of achievement goals: * **Mastery-Approach** * **​**want to master the task, learn as much as you can, improve, etc. * **Mastery-Avoidance** * **​**Avoid mistakes, ignorance, or doing something poorly * **Performance-Approach** * **​**Competitive focus: outdoing others, noticed (ideally with min effort) * **Performance-Avoidance** * **​**Avoid losing, being outdone, looking bad Notice: Performance = "ego goals" - person preoccupied with appearance * Men are more likely to report performance-avoidance goals * Women are more likely to report mastery-avoidance Also, predicts course grade, course evaluations: * *Mastery-Approach:* do well, consider the exams a positive kind of challenge; say course is interesting * *Performance-Approach:* actually _score higher,_ but less enjoyment out of the course * *Performance-Avoidance: *thinks everything is terrible

Question 28

What are the 3 major motivational conflicts? Examples?

Answer 28

When something is attractive, you **approach** it * close you get to the goal, desirability increases → stronger "pull" toward it When something is undesirable, **avoid** it * closer you get to the negative outcome, more repellent it becomes (stronger avoidance) * avoidance increases faster than approach Sometimes, need to balance motivations: * **Approach-Approach Conflict:** * **​**Choosing bw 2 attractive options * eg. Flying to Bermuda? or to Hawaii? * _Minimal stress:_ Moving toward one option makes it more desirable (dominates) * **Avoidance-Avoidance Conflict:** * **​**Choosing bw 2 undesirable oprions * eg. hate one's job, but hate being broke too * Moving toward one option makes it seem more repellant → avoid → end up back where you started * Typically, most try to stay balanced bw the negatives for as long as possible * **Approach-Avoidance Conflict:** * **​**Involved being both attracted to and repelled by the same option * eg. want to ask someone out, but terrified of rejection * eg. being with someone who is crazy, but super-hot * _Most stressful:_ apprach, but then avoidance gets super-strong, so back off, but then negative aspects seem lower, so appraoch again.. * Typically, most people hang around the point of maximum conflict. Other terms: * **Double Approach-Avoidance:** * Involved being both attracted to and repelled by each of 2 different options * eg. Living in the country = fresh air, but long commute; and living in the city = noisy, but night life * **Delay discounting:** * **​**Incentive value decreases with greater delay * eg. Study now to get good grade on the exam, or watch TV? - As exam approaches, incentive to study increases

Question 29

Define emotion in 3 parts

Answer 29

**Emotions:** A. Positive or negative feelings (affective states) B. Consist of cognitive, physiological, and behavioural rxns to events * Note: events can be internal or external C. Relevance to goals/motives * Some claim we only feel emotions when goals are reached/threatened/foiled * Motive/goals = stimulus; emotion = response