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Applications for biology > 1.1: Microorganisms > Flashcards

1.1: Microorganisms Flashcards

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1
Q

measurements/ timesing needed for cm to mm

A

x10

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2
Q

measurements/ timesing needed for mm to micrometers

A

x 1000

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3
Q

measurements/ timesing needed for micrometers to nm

A

x 1000

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4
Q

measurements/ timesing needed for nm to micrometers

A

divide by 1000

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5
Q

measurements/ timesing needed for micrometers to mm

A

divide by 1000

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6
Q

measurements/ timesing needed for mm to cm

A

divide by 10

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7
Q

magnification equation

A

actual size = image size/magnification

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8
Q

magnification calculation rule

A

Always measure the image in mm THEN multiply by 1000 to get image size in micrometers

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9
Q

Ribosomes function

A

Site of protein synthesis

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10
Q

Pili function

A

Attachment to cells and involved in sexual reproduction

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11
Q

Glycogen granules function

A

Store Carbohydrates for breakdown during respiration

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12
Q

Flagellum function

A

aids cell movement

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13
Q

photosynthetic lamellae function

A

contains chlorophyll. Site of photosynthesis

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14
Q

cell wall function

A

Made of peptidoglycan (murein). Physical barrier which prevents mechanical and osmotic damage to the cell

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15
Q

mesosome function

A

Helps form new cell walls & site of attachment of respiratory enzymes

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16
Q

cell surface membrane function

A

controls entry & exit of chemicals into/out of the cell

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17
Q

circular DNA function

A

contains genetic information of the cell

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18
Q

lipid droplet function

A

Lipid storage. May be converted to carbohydrate and used in respiration

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19
Q

Plasmid function

A

Small circle of DNA which contains genes which help bacteria survive adverse conditions

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20
Q

capsule function

A

Protection against desiccation and helps bacteria stick together

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21
Q

Label this Prokaryotic Cell

A

Look into your book for the answers

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22
Q

What structures are always present in prokaryotic cells

A

Ribosomes, Cell Wall, Plasma Membrane, Circular DNA

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23
Q

What is Gram’s stain used for?

A

Staining Bacteria as an aid to their identification for cell wall types

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24
Q

Who devised Gram staining?

A

Hans Christian Joachim Gram in 1884

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25
Q

What is Gram’s stain differentiating between in terms of two major cell wall types?

A
  • bacteria species with a cell membrane surrounded by a thick cell wall (20-80nm thick) : Gram-positive
  • bacteria species with a thin cell wall (2-3nm) : Gram-negative
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26
Q

What makes the bacteria gram-negative?

A

small quantities of peptidoglycan (muezzin) and an additional layer of lipopolysaccharide

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27
Q

What makes the bacteria gram-positive?

A

relatively large quantities of peptidoglycan (muezzin) and an no lipopolysaccharide

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28
Q

Method for carrying out a Gram Stain

A
  1. Heat fix a smear bacteria onto a clear microscope slide
  2. Flood with crystal violet
  3. Wash the smear with iodine to fix
  4. Decolourise with alcohol (ethanol)
  5. Counter stain with a red stain (e.g. safranin)
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29
Q

What happens to the gram-positive bacteria?

A

They retain the crystal violet/iodine complex and appear purple

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30
Q

What happens to the gram-negative bacteria?

A

Lose the crystal violet/iodine complex but take up the red stain

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31
Q

why is it that the gram-negative bacteria turns red?

A

Because the gram-negative cell well is thinner so it’s easily watched out with alcohol

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32
Q

typical gram-positive bacteria

A
  • staphylococci (staphylococcus epidermis and staphylococcus aureus common causes of boil abscesses)
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33
Q

typical gram-negative bacteria

A
  • whooping cough
  • cholera
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34
Q

What does the lipopolysaccharide layer do?

A

forms an extra physical barrier which is more resistant to enzymes which normally destroy/inhibit bacteria. Therefore, infections due to gram-negative bacteria are harder to treat.

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35
Q

What shape is the cocci bacteria?

A

spherical

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36
Q

What is an example of the cocci shape bacteria and what disease can be caused by it?

A

Staphylococcus aureus
MRSA

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37
Q

What is an example of the bacilli shape bacteria and what disease can be caused by it?

A

Bacillus Anthracis
Anthrax

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38
Q

What is an example of the spirilla shaped bacteria and what disease can be caused by it?

A

Chlamydia trachomatis
Chlamydia

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39
Q

What is an example of the vibrio shaped bacteria and what disease can be caused by it?

A

Vibrio Cholerae
Cholera

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40
Q

What is the shape of the spirilla bacteria?

A

spiral shaped

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41
Q

What is the shape of the vibrio bacteria?

A

crescent moon shaped

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42
Q

What is the name for bacterial reproduction?

A

Binary Fission

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43
Q

What is the generation times for bacteria?

A

as little as 20 minutes but can be 15-20 hours

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44
Q

What is differs binary fission from mitosis?

A
  • there are no spindle fibres
  • chromatids are not pulled apart by the spindle
  • cytokinesis does not occur
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45
Q

What are the 3 ways plasmids can be transferred to another bacterium?

A

conjugation, transformation, transduction

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46
Q

What are the characteristics of Plasmids?

A
  • they are circles of DNA in their cytoplasm
  • can replicate independently
  • plasmids often carry genes which help baterium survive adversely
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47
Q

What are R-factors?

A

Causes resistance to antibiotics

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48
Q

Do plasmids contain R-factors?

A

Yes

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49
Q

What is transductions?

A

This occurs when new genes are inserted into the chromosome of a bacterium by a bacteriophage virus

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50
Q

What is a bacteriophage?

A

A virus that infects a bacteria cell

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51
Q

How do the two cells join in conjugation?

A

By pili

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52
Q

How does conjugation work?

A
  • the donor bacteria passes a plasmid called the F-factor (fertility factor) to the recipient
  • This provides the recipient bacterium with everything needed to be a donor including the capacity to synthesise the sex pilus
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53
Q

How may the Fertility factor (F - factor) exist?

A

As a free element in the cytoplasm or incorporated into the bacterial chromosome (so it will be replicated)

54
Q

What is the transformation (bacteria reproduction)?

A

This occurs when one bacterium releases DNA which is absorbed by a second bacterium.

The second cell therefore acquires new characteristics - allows them to survive in unfavourable conditions

55
Q

What are protoctista?

A

Eukaryotes which include: protozoa, nucleated algae and the slime moulds

Just not animals, plants or fungi.

56
Q

What are the key features of Protoctista?

A
  • Eukaryotes, single cells
  • found where moisture is present
  • move using cilia, flagella or pseudopodia (false foot)
  • have contractile vacuole to remove excess water
  • gas exchange by diffusion
57
Q

What nutrition does protoctista use?

A

Autotrophs, heterotrophs, saprotrophs

58
Q

What are autotrophs?

A

make own food E.g. plants

59
Q

What are Heterotrophs?

A

Eat other organisms

60
Q

What are saphrotrophs?

A

Eat dead things

61
Q

What is the importance of plasmodium vivax?

A

causes malaria using female Anopheles mosquitoes as a transmission vector

62
Q

What organism causes malaria?

A

plasmodium vivax

63
Q

What nutrition does plasmodium vivax use?

A

phagocytosis

64
Q

What is phagocytosis?

A

process by which certain living cells called phagocytes ingest or engulf other cells or particles

65
Q

What is the importance of paramecium caudatum?

A

recycling organic waste - sewage treatment

66
Q

What nutrition does paramecium caudatum use?

A

cilia beat and sweep food towards oral groove where it engulfs dead/decaying matter

67
Q

What is the importance of trypanosome gambiense?

A

causes sleeping sickness

68
Q

What nutrition does trypanosome gambiense use?

A

Human parasite, lives in blood plasma and soluble nutrients diffuse into the cell

69
Q

What is the importance of phytopthora infestans?

A

causes potato blight, caused the Irish potato famine 1845-1852

70
Q

What is the nutrition that trypanosome gambiense uses?

A

Secretes enzymes to digest food then absorbs soluble nutrients

71
Q

What are examples of fungi?

A

yeast, candida (thrush), penicillium

72
Q

What are some important features found in fungi?

A
  • found everywhere
  • eukaryotic with a chitin cell wall
  • single cell (yeast) or multicellular (mushrooms)
  • heterotrophic
  • both obligate aerobes and facultative anaerobes
73
Q

What does obligate aerobes mean?

A

won’t survive without oxygen

74
Q

What does facultative anaerobes mean?

A

Grows best when oxygen is available but can survive in anaerobic conditions

75
Q

What is fungi threads called?

A

hyphae

76
Q

What does hyphae branches form?
where does hyphae grow?

A

-mycelium
-only grow at their tips

77
Q

What is the cellular structure for viruses?

A

There is none, it’s acellular

78
Q

What are viruses, in terms of reproduction?

A

they are obligate parasites, that can only reproduce when inside other cells.

79
Q

What is the size of viruses compared to bacteria?

A

50 times smaller than bacteria (20nm to 300nm)

80
Q

What microscopes can be used to see viruses?

A

Electron microscopes

81
Q

How do viruses function?
- chemical machinery
- enzymes

A
  • They don’t contain the chemical machinery to carry out chemical reactions for life
  • viruses carry only one or two enzymes that control gene expression and replication.
  • Viruses must have a host cell, viruses can’t function outside of a host cell.
82
Q

Where is DNA contained in a virus?

A

In a core, they are either double or single stranded DNA or RNA.

83
Q

What is a capsid?

A

A protective coat made up of capsomeres (made of protein)

84
Q

Where is the lipoprotein envelope?

A

They are around the capsule

85
Q

What is a DNA virus?

A

Has DNA as a genetic material and replicates using a DNA dependent polymerase (produces polymers of DNA)

86
Q

What is a RNA virus?

A

A virus that has RNA as its genetic material. The nucleic acid is usually single-stranded, but may be double -stranded RNA

87
Q

What does every enzyme end in?

A
  • ase
88
Q

What are the 3 types of virus shapes?

A

Helical, polyhedral, complex

89
Q

What is the method of endocytosis? (how viruses enter host cells)

A
  1. Non-enveloped virus encounters the host cell
  2. endocytosis takes place
  3. the whole virus is engulfed into a vacuole
  4. vacuole fuses with the endoplasmic reticulum of the host cell
  5. virus enters endoplasmic reticulum.
90
Q

What is the lysosome method? (how viruses enter host cells)

A
  1. Viral envelope sticks to cell membrane, endocytosis takes place and virus engulfed into a vacuole
  2. The vacuole containing the virus fuses with a lysosome
  3. enzymes released into the vacuole causes the viral envelope to fuse with the vacuole membrane
    4+5: The nucleocapsid is released into the cytoplasm.
91
Q

What is the final method for how viruses enter host cells?

A
  1. enveloped virus
  2. viral envelope fuses with host membrane
  3. viral envelope forms part of host cell membrane
  4. nucleocapsid is released directly into the cytoplasm
92
Q

What is the purpose of the viral envelope forming part of the host cell membrane?

A

Informs other viruses/immune system which cells have been invaded

93
Q

What is the lytic cycle?

A

viruses infect and destroy host bacteria
The infection brings sudden death and lysis of the host cell

94
Q

What are examples of cells that go through the lytic cycle?

A

bacteriophage
common cold
influenza
rabies

95
Q

What is the lysogenic cycle?

A

When viruses that do not replicate once inside the host cell. Instead the nucleic acid becomes incorporated into the DNA of the host cell.
The virus is then known as a provirus and is inactive

96
Q

What makes the lysogenic cycle start to enter the lytic cycle?

A

When a stressful condition occurs and the prophage DNA is excised from the main bacterial DNA which causes it to enter the lytic cycle

97
Q

What are the 5 stages of the lytic cycle?

A
  1. Attachment - the phage attaches to the surface of the host
  2. penetration - the viral DNA enters the host cell
  3. biosynthesis - phage DNA replicates and phage proteins are made
  4. Maturation - new phage particles are assembled
  5. Lysis - the cell lyses, releasing the newly made phages
98
Q

What are the stages of the lysogenic cycle?

A
  • the phage infects a cell
  • the Phage DNA becomes incorporated into the host genome
  • the cell divides, and prophage is passed onto daughter cells
99
Q

What stressful situations cause the lytic cycle from the lysogenic cycle?

A
  • lack of food sources
  • competition with other bacteria
  • lack of resources
100
Q

How do viruses leave host cells?

A
  • bursting their host cells
  • budding : taking an envelope of host membrane as they leave
101
Q

What genetic material is found in HIV?

A

Single stranded RNA

102
Q

What is HIV?

A

A retrovirus

103
Q

What enzyme do HIV carry to infect cells?

A

reverse transcriptase

104
Q

What does the reverse transcriptase do?

A

converts viral RNA to DNA

105
Q

What is a provirus?

A

When the DNA copy of the viral genes is inserted into the host cell chromosomes

106
Q

What does the viral infection do before the provirus is expressed to make new virus particles?

A

stay latent (dormant)

107
Q

What happens when the host cell divides?

A

The provirus is replicated so the number of infected cells increase

108
Q

What does the HIV infect?

A

A white blood cell called a T helper lymphocyte.

109
Q

How long can the HIV lay inactive?

A

10 years

110
Q

What are the methods of transmission for HIV?

A
  • exchange of bodily fluids (blood)
  • unprotected sex
  • unscreened blood transfusions
  • un-sterile surgical equipment
  • hypodermic needles shared
  • across placenta/child birth
111
Q

What is the HIV life cycle?

A
  • infection
  • reverse transcription
  • integration
  • transcription
  • budding
112
Q

HIV life cycle - infection

A

virus infects RNA into host cells

113
Q

HIV life cycle - reverse transcription

A

reverse transcriptase uses RNA template to make HIV DNA

114
Q

HIV life cycle - integration

A

HIV DNA inserts itself into host DNA

115
Q

HIV life cycle - transcription

A

the viral DNA codes for viral RNA and proteins

116
Q

HIV life cycle- budding

A

new virus particles assemble and split off from host cell

117
Q

How do you develop AIDs?

A

when the level of T cells drop below critical level due to cell lysis

118
Q

What is the receptor on the target cell of HIV

A

CD4 chemokine receptor

119
Q

what happens after the viral and host cell membranes fuse in HIV?

A

HIV RNA and proteins enter the cell

120
Q

where does the viral DNA in HIV migrate to?

A

Host nucleus and is integrated into the genome

121
Q

What is it called when the viral DNA is integrated into the host chromosomes/genome?

A

provirus

122
Q

What does cell activation result in HIV?

A

Transcription and translation of viral genes (produce viral proteins to produce new viral particles)

123
Q

What do the viral proteins and RNA genome migrate to in HIV?

A

cell surface membrane on host cells

124
Q

How is a mature infectious virus produced?

A

HIV buds from the cell (and is surrounded by host cell membrane)

125
Q

HIV treatments - PEP

A

Post exposure prophylaxis

  • given to a person within 72 hours of exposure.
  • Can be used before sex (unprotected)
  • people who have had unsafe sex, been raped or sexually assaulted must get PEP
126
Q

HIV treatments - vaccines (preventative)

A

designed to protect HIV - negative people from becoming infected

127
Q

HIV treatments - vaccines (therapeutic)

A

aimed at boosting the immune system in those already infected

128
Q

Problems with the HIV vaccine

A
  • constantly changing virus with many subtypes
  • hard to develop a single vaccine which works on all strains
129
Q

Other preventative HIV treatments

A

Not sharing hypodermic needles

130
Q

HIV treatments - Antiviral drugs (under development)

A
  • fusion of entry inhibition (stop virus from gaining entry to the cell)
  • inhibitors of reverse transcriptase
  • integrase inhibition (block the action of HIV enzyme)
131
Q

HIV treatments - Antiviral drugs (in trials)

A

TNX-355 (blocks HIV from binding to a protein on the cell surface)

PRO 140 (contains genetically engineered to fight infections)

KP - 1461 (unique approach to fighting HIV, called viral decay acceleration - increase HIV immunisation rate)

Applications for biology (5 decks)

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