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Biology 2 > 11. Cloning and Biotechnology > Flashcards

11. Cloning and Biotechnology Flashcards

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1
Q

What are clones?

A

Genetically identical copies.
Can be cells, tissues, organs or organisms.
Produced by asexual reproduction (mitotic division).

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2
Q

What are the advantages of natural cloning?

A

If the conditions for growth are good for the parent they will be good for the offspring, cloning is relatively rapid, asexual reproduction can be carried out with just one organism.

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3
Q

What are the disadvantages of natural cloning?

A

The offspring may become overcrowded, no genetic diversity, little variation, if the environment changes to be less advantageous, the whole population is susceptible.

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4
Q

What is vegetative propagation?

A

The process in natural cloning

It is reproduction through vegetative parts of the plant, rather than specialised reproductive structures.

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5
Q

What are runners, stolens and rhizomes?

A

Horizontal stems that can form roots at certain points.
They are runners or stolens if they grow on the surface of the ground.
They are rhizomes if they are underground.

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6
Q

What are suckers?

A

New stems that grow from the roots of a plant.

The original horizontal branch will die, leaving the new stem as a separate individual.

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7
Q

What are bulbs?

A

They consist of an underground stem from which grow a series of leaf bases.
This will grow into a new plant in the spring.

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8
Q

What are corms?

A

They are solid father than fleshy like bulbs.
They remain in the ground over winter.
In the spring, buds grow to produce one or more new plants.

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9
Q

What are tubers?

A

Another type of underground stem.
Potatoes are tubers.
They can grow into one or more plants.

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10
Q

How do cuttings form clones in plants?

A

A stem is cut between two leaf joints.
The cut end of the stem is then placed in the soil.
New roots will grow from the tissues in the stem.

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11
Q

What is tissue culture?

A

A series of techniques used to grow cells, tissues or organs from a small sample of cells or tissue.
It is widely used commercially to increase the number of new plants.

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12
Q

What is micropropagation?

A

Using small samples of plant tissue and plant growth substances to grow a whole new plant.

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13
Q

What are the steps of micropropagation?

A
  1. Plant material (called explants) are cut.
  2. The explants are sterilised, to ensure any bacteria or fungi is killed.
  3. The explants are placed in a sterile growth medium containing nutrients to stimulate the cells to divide and form a callus.
  4. The callus divides and differentiate into different plant tissues.
  5. Once tiny plantlets are formed, they are transferred to a greenhouse to grow.
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14
Q

What is a callus?

A

A mass of undifferentiated totipotent cells

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15
Q

What are the advantages of artificial cloning?

A

More rapid than growing plants from seed, can be carried out with one organism, the plants will have the desirable characteristics of the parent, the plants have uniform phenotypes which makes them easier to harvest

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16
Q

What are the disadvantages of artificial cloning?

A

Tissue culture is labour intensive, it is expensive, tissue culture can fail due to microbial contamination, no genetic variation.

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17
Q

How do animal clones occur naturally?

A

Once an egg had been fertilised, it’s possible for it to split and develop into multiple embryos with the same genetic information.
The embryos can develop to produce offspring that are genetically identical.
Identical twins are natural clones.

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18
Q

What are the two methods of artificial cloning in animals?

A

Artificial embryo splitting

Somatic cell nuclear transfer (SCNT)

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19
Q

What are the 5 steps of artificial embryo splitting in cows and other similar animals?

A
  1. An egg cell is extracted and fertilised in a petri dish.
  2. The fertilised egg divides at least once.
  3. The individual cells are separated and put into separate petri dishes to develop so an embryo forms in each petri dish.
  4. The embryos are then implanted again into the surrogate mother.
  5. The embryos continue to develop inside the surrogate.
    The offspring are genetically identical clones of each other.
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20
Q

What are the 5 steps of somatic cell nuclear transfer in sheep and similar animals?

A
  1. An egg cell is obtained and its nucleus is removed (enucleation) but it still contains organelles like mitochondria.
  2. A somatic cell from the adult to be cloned is isolated.
  3. The somatic cell, or just its nucleus, is fused with the empty egg by applying electric shock.
  4. The cell undergoes mitosis and the embryo is implanted back into the surrogate mother.
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21
Q

What is a somatic cell?

A

A cell that isn’t reproductive

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22
Q

What are the uses of cloning?

A

Research purposes testing new drugs.
To save endangered species
To increase the number of animals with desirable characteristics.
Embryonic stem cells can be cloned to then become any cell type.

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23
Q

What are the arguments for Animal cloning?

A

Desirable genetic characteristics are passed on, infertile animals can be reproduced, increase populations of endangered species, increase biodiversity, develop new treatments for diseases.

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24
Q

What are the arguments against Animal cloning?

A

Difficult, time-consuming and expensive, no genetic variability, clones may not live as long, some see cloned human embryos as destroying human life.

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25
Q

What is biotechnology?

A

The industrial use of living organisms to produce food, drugs and other products.

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26
Q

Why are microorganisms used in biotechnology?

A

Their ideal growth conditions can be easily created, they grow rapidly so products can be made quickly, they can be grown on a range of inexpensive materials, they can be grown at any time of year.

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27
Q

What processes are microorganisms used in?

A

Brewing (making beer), Baking, Cheese making, Yoghurt production, penicillin production, insulin production, bioremediation

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28
Q

How are microorganisms used in brewing?

A

To make beer, yeast is added to a type of grain and other ingredients.
The yeast respires anaerobically using the glucose from the grain to produce ethanol and CO2.
This is called fermentation.

29
Q

How are microorganisms used in cheese making?

A

Relies on rennet which contains the enzyme chymosin which clots milk.
It also involves lactic acid bacteria which converts lactose to lactic acid to solidify milk.

30
Q

How are microorganisms used in yogurt production?

A

Uses lactic acid bacteria to clot the milk and cause it to thicken.
Any colours and flavours are added later.

31
Q

How are microorganisms used in penicillin production?

A

The fungus penicillium is grown in industrial fermenters to produce penicillin.
It is the secondary metabolite.
This is then collected and purified.

32
Q

What is bioremediation?

A

Using microorganisms to break down pollutants, like oil and pesticides into less harmful products.

33
Q

What are the advantages of using microorganisms in food production?

A

Microorganisms can be grown quickly, easily and cheaply, they can be cultured anywhere with the right equipment, single-cell proteins are often a healthier alternative to animal protein.

34
Q

What are the disadvantages of using microorganisms in food production?

A

The conditions can also be ideal for other microorganisms which contaminate the final product, people may not like the idea of eating food made out of waste products, single-cell protein doesn’t have the same texture as real meat.

35
Q

Where are microorganisms grown in industrial processes?

A

Fermentation vessels.

36
Q

What is a culture?

A

A population of one type of microorganism that’s been grown under controlled conditions.

37
Q

What is batch fermentation?

A

Where all the substrate and nutrients are added at the beginning and the reaction proceeds until maximum end product concentration is achieved.
They are grown in a closed culture.

38
Q

What is continuous fermentation?

A

Where microorganisms are continually grown in a fermentation vessel without stopping.
Nutrients are put in and waste products are taken out at a constant rate.

39
Q

What conditions have to be maintained within a fermentation vessel?

A

pH, temperature, access to nutrients, volume of oxygen, vessel kept sterilised

40
Q

Why and how is pH regulated in a fermentation vessel?

A

pH allows enzymes to work efficiently, so the rate is kept as high as possible.
It is continually monitored by a pH probe and kept at the optimum level

41
Q

Why and how is temperature regulated in a fermentation vessel?

A

Temperature allows enzymes to work efficiently, so the rate is kept as high as possible.
A water jacket that surrounds the vessel keeps the temperature constant.

42
Q

How is access to nutrients regulated in a fermentation vessel?

A

Paddles constantly circulate fresh nutrient medium around the vessel.

43
Q

Why and how is volume of oxygen regulated in a fermentation vessel?

A

Oxygen is needed for respiration.

Sterile air is pumped into the vessel when needed.

44
Q

Why and how is the fermentation vessel kept sterile?

A

Kills any unwanted organisms that may compete with the ones being cultured.
Superheated steam sterilises the vessel after each use.

45
Q

What is asepsis?

A

The absence of bacteria, viruses, and other microorganisms that could compete with the microorganisms being grown.

46
Q

What aseptic techniques are used when culturing microorganisms?

A

Disinfect work surfaces and instruments, use a bunsen flame to create an updraft for microorganisms, minimise the time the agar plate is open, sterilise glassware in an autoclave

47
Q

How is the equipment and nutrient agar medium sterilised in an autoclave?

A

They are heated at 121°C for 15

48
Q

When is a liquid broth medium used?

A

Can be used to increase the numbers of microorganisms before transferring to agar plates for counting/ identification.
This allows us to measure growth rate of microorganisms.

49
Q

What is serial dilution?

A

If a broth is used to inoculate an agar plate, there may be too many colonies to count.
Serial dilution allows us to reduce the population density in order to count colonies accurately.

50
Q

How does serial dilution work?

A

A broth is diluted by a factor of 10.
1ml sample of broth mixed with 9ml of distilled water would make a dilution of 0.1.
This is repeated until you have the desired broth.
Once you have counted the colonies, multiply by the dilution factor and the volume added to the plate.

51
Q

What is a closed culture?

A

When growth takes place is a vessel that’s isolated from the external environment.
Extra nutrients aren’t added and waste products aren’t removed from the vessel during growth.
The population of microorganisms follows a standard growth curve.

52
Q

What are the different phases of the standard growth curve?

A

Lag phase, Exponential phase, Stationary phase, Decline phase

53
Q

What happens during the lag phase?

A

Population increases very slowly.
Organisms adjusting to their new environment, cells growing, activating certain genes, synthesizing specific proteins (enzymes)

54
Q

What happens during the log (exponential) phase?

A

Population increases quickly as the conditions are most favourable for reproduction (enzymes needed to survive and sufficient nutrients and space to grow).

55
Q

What happens during the stationary phase?

A

Population stays level, death rate equals reproduction rate. Microorganisms die as there is not enough food and toxic waste products build up.

56
Q

What happens during the decline phase?

A

Population falls as death rate is bigger that reproduction rate.

57
Q

What are primary metabolites?

A

They are produced and collected continuously during the log phase.
They are produced in an open culture and conditions are maintained for optimal growth.
They are involved in primary processes such as respiration and photosynthesis.

58
Q

What are secondary metabolites?

A

They are produced in the stationary phase.

They are kept in a closed culture and collected at the end of the stationary phase or during the decline phase.

59
Q

What are immobilised enzymes?

A

Held in place and not free to diffuse through solution and mix freely with the substrate.
They are surrounded by the immobilising matrix which protects them from extreme conditions

60
Q

What are the advantages of using immobilised enzymes?

A

Do not mix with the product, so extraction costs are lower, easily reused, the immobilising matrix means higher temperatures and a wider pH can be used without denaturing

61
Q

What are the disadvantages of using immobilised enzymes?

A

It is more expensive and immobilised enzymes are less active making the process slower

62
Q

What are the three ways enzymes are immobilised?

A

Adsorption, covalent bonding, entrapment, membrane separation

63
Q

How are enzymes immobilised by adsorption?

A

Enzymes are bound to a supporting surface.

The active site is exposed and available to the substrate.

64
Q

How are enzymes immobilised by covalent bonding?

A

Enzymes are covalently bonded to cellulose or collagen fibres.
This can be expensive but enzymes are less likely to become detached.

65
Q

How are enzymes immobilised by entrapment?

A

Enzymes are trapped in a silica gel matrix.
The enzymes remain fully active.
However, the substrates have to diffuse out of the matrix, so only works with small molecules and limits reaction rate.

66
Q

How are enzymes immobilised by membrane separation?

A

Enzymes are separated from the reaction mixture by a partially permeable membrane.
The substrates have to be small enough to diffuse through the membrane.

67
Q

What is therapeutic cloning?

A

Cloning of cells and tissue

68
Q

What is reproductive cloning?

A

Cloning of a whole organism

Biology 2 (12 decks)

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