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MedST IB: Neurobiology and Human Behaviour (NHB) > 10.0 Psychology > Flashcards

10.0 Psychology Flashcards

1
Q

Define introspection

A

Examination/observation of one’s own mental or emotional processes

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2
Q

What is structuralism?

A

Approach to psychology where complex perceptions are broken down into ‘elementary sensations’<br></br><br></br>This approach is associated with Wundt who attempted to classify stimuli according to their sensory properties

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3
Q

What is functionalism?

A

Approach to psychology that focused on how mental processes combine and interact to achieve functions<br></br><br></br>Associated with James

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4
Q

Define cognition

A

A mental process of acquiring knowledge and understanding through thought, experience, and the senses

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5
Q

Define overt attention

A

Physically moving in order to process object/region

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6
Q

Define covert attention

A

Arises when we don’t move our eyes. Using attention to focus on some objects and ignoring others (independent of eye movements)

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7
Q

What is the filter model of attention?

A

Sensory information has to pass a bottleneck to reach a limited-capacity area where processing takes place.<br></br><br></br>The filter model states that a filter selects information (based on physical attributes) and ignores the rest by blocking it

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8
Q

What is the filter-attenuation model?

A

The filter does not completely block the ignored information, it simply attenuates it

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9
Q

What evidence is there fore the filter-attenuation model?

A

1) During dichotic listening, if messages delivered to subjects switched sides, the subjects subconsciously matched this switch<br></br><br></br>2) During dichotic listening, subjects would notice their name if it was presented on the ‘ignored side’<br></br><br></br>3) During dichotic listening, fear inducing words played to the ignored side lead to galvanic skin responses

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10
Q

Endogenous vs exogenous attention ques:

A

Endogenous = cue presented in the centre of screen (and centre of focus) - responses to this are voluntary<br></br><br></br>Exogenous = cue presented outside the centre of focus - responses to this are reflexive (involuntary)

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11
Q

Hoe many objects can be tracked in multiple object tracking?

A

4

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12
Q

What lobe is affected in attention disorders?

A

Parietal lobe

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13
Q

What are three disorders of attention?

A

<b>1) Unilateral neglect syndrome</b><br></br>- Unilateral parietal lobe damage<br></br>- Patients fail to pay attention to one side<br></br><br></br><b>2) Unilateral extinction</b><br></br>- Unilateral parietal lobe damage<br></br>- Patients can notice stimuli on both sides when presented in isolation<br></br>- If stimuli are presented together - one side is affected<br></br><br></br><b>3) Balint’s syndrome</b><br></br>- Bilateral parietal lobe damage<br></br>- Triad of symptoms: <br></br>i) Simultanagnosia<br></br>ii) Fixity of gaze<br></br>iii) Optic ataxia

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14
Q

What are the two sensory memory stores?

A

<b>1) Iconic store</b><br></br>- Brief sensory store for visual info<br></br><b>2) Echoic store</b><br></br>- Auditory info<br></br><b>Both are short duration (0.5-2 seconds)</b><br></br><b>Both are passive</b><br></br><b>Large capacity</b> (difficult to measure)

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15
Q

What is the memory span (capacity) of short-term memory?

A

7 ± 2 digits

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16
Q

What is recency effect?

A

Last few items in list are remembered better<br></br>Due to short term memory

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17
Q

What is primacy effect?

A

Earlier items in list are better remembered<br></br><br></br>Due to long term memory

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18
Q

What are the 4 primary components of the working memory model?

A

<b>1) Phonological loop</b><br></br>- Short term storage of info in speech based form<br></br><br></br><b>2) Visuo-spatial sketch pad</b><br></br>- Short term storage of spatial and visual information<br></br><br></br><b>3) Multimodal episodic buffer</b><br></br>- Hold and integrates diverse info (from phonological loop, visuo-spatial sketchpad and long term memory)<br></br><br></br><b>4) Central executive</b><br></br>- Modality free<br></br>- Responsible for selecting + initiating cognitive processing

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19
Q

What are the three stages of processing human memory?

A

1) Encoding<br></br>2) Storage<br></br>3) Retrieval

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20
Q

What was Ebbinghaus’ experiment?

A
  • He was sole subject<br></br>- Taught himself a series of nonsense syllables until he could repeat it twice in order, without errors<br></br>- Tested his retention at various delays<br></br>- Retention decreases as interval increases<br></br>- Rate of forgetting goes down
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21
Q

What factors influence memory encoding?

A

1) Practice<br></br>2) Levels of processing (depth)<br></br>3) Organisation<br></br>4) Spacing<br></br>5) Active retrieval

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22
Q

What are the two major forms of amnesia?

A

1) Retrograde - forgetting events prior to trauma<br></br><br></br>2) Anterograde - Inability to retain new material in permanent form

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23
Q

What are the causes of amnesia?

A

V - Anoxia / ischaemia<br></br>I - Encephalitis<br></br>Trauma<br></br>Autoimmune<br></br>M - Dietary insufficiency (Korsakoff)/ alcoholism<br></br>I - Neurosurgery<br></br>Neoplasms<br></br><br></br>C<br></br>D - Alzheimer’s<br></br>E

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24
Q

Unilateral right medial temporal lobe lesions cause _________ defects, whilst unilateral left medial temporal lobe lesions cause _________ defects.

A

Unilateral right medial temporal lobe lesions cause <b>non-verbal</b> defects, whilst unilateral left medial temporal lobe lesions cause <b>verbal</b> defects.

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25
Q

Where does brain damage occur in cases with selective loss of short term memory, but intact long term memory?

A

Posterior cortex

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26
Q

Define agnosia:

A

Higher level sensory deficits

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27
Q

Define movement agnosia:

A

Subject cannot see movement

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28
Q

Define prosopagnosia:

A

Subject cannot recognise faces

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29
Q

What are the two types of visual agnosia?

A

<b>1) Associative agnosia</b><br></br>- Subject cannot recognise/name/use objects<br></br>- Can draw them accurately<br></br><br></br><b>2) Apperceptive agnosia</b><br></br>- Can name objects<br></br>- Cannot draw object

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30
Q

Declarative vs non-declarative memory:

A

<b>1) Declarative memory (Explicit)</b><br></br>- Requires conscious recollection of previous experience<br></br>- Based on facts and events<br></br>- Temporal lobe + diencephalon<br></br><br></br><b>2) Non-declarative memory (implicit/procedural)</b><br></br>- Knowledge gained through practice<br></br>- Represents a skill<br></br>- Basal ganglia + cerebellum

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31
Q

What did monkeys with induced temporal lobe lesions show experimentally?

A

1) Impaired delayed non-matching to sample (DNMS)<br></br>2) Intact skill learning<br></br>3) Mild retrograde amnesia

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32
Q

What area of the brain is associated with recognition memory?

A

Rhinal cortex (found on medial temporal lobe)

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33
Q

What area of the brain is associated with emotional memory?

A

Amygdala

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34
Q

What area of the brain is associated with scene/episodic memory?

A

Hippocampus

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35
Q

What makes up the hippocampal formation?

A

1) Hippocampus<br></br>2) Dentate gyrus<br></br>3) Subiculum

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36
Q

What are the afferents to the hippocampal formation?

A

1) All major cortical association areas (to entorhinal cortex)<br></br><br></br>2) Subcortical structures (septum/anterior thalamus/amygdala)<br></br><br></br>3) Non-specific arousal systems (cholinergic, serotonergic + NA pathways)

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37
Q

What connects dentate gyrus to CA3 pyramidal cells?

A

Mossy fibres

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38
Q

What connects CA3 pyramidal cells to CA1 pyramidal cells?

A

Schaffer collaterals

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39
Q

What is the role of hippocampus in memory?

A

1) Episodic memory<br></br>2) Spatial memory<br></br><br></br>LONDON CABBIES have altered hippocampal volume

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40
Q

What neurotransmitter is used by perforant pathway, mossy fibres and schaffer collaterals?

A

Glutamate

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41
Q

What are the 3 types of glutamate receptor? Which one is implicated in LTP?

A

<b>1) Quisqualate</b><br></br>- Normal fast transmission<br></br><br></br><b>2) Kainate</b><br></br>- Normal fast transmission<br></br><br></br><b>3) NMDA</b><br></br>- Plays a role in LTP

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42
Q

Define aphasia:

A

Disorder of language

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43
Q

What is seen in Broca’s aphasia?

A

Slow laboured speech with impaired articulation<br></br>Patient can comprehend what they hear

44
Q

What is seen in Wernicke’s aphasia?

A

Effortless and melodic speech which is unintelligible.<br></br>There is impaired comprehension of speech

45
Q

What fibres connect Broca’s and Wernicke’s areas?

A

Arcuate fasciculus

46
Q

What is conduction aphasia?

A

Aphasia that occurs following damage to arcuate fasciculus<br></br><br></br>Symptoms = impaired repetition of spoken word<br></br><br></br>(no spontaneous speech deficits or issues with comprehension)

47
Q

What studies have shown that language is mainly associated with left hemisphere?

A

<b>1) Split brain patients</b><br></br>- Corpus callosum severed for epilepsy<br></br>- Showed objects processed in left cortex (right hand) could be named easier<br></br><br></br><b>2) WADA procedure</b><br></br>- LA injected to right or left carotid<br></br>- 96% of right handed people had speech representation on left (4% on right)<br></br>- 70% of left handed people had speech representation on left (15% right and 15% bilateral)<br></br><br></br><b>3) fMRIs</b>

48
Q

What is the right hemisphere important for in language?

A

Emotional and tonal colouring of language (prosody)

49
Q

What is the Wernicke-Geshwind model for language?

A

States that there are different pathways for spoken and written word.<br></br><br></br>Spoken word comes through auditory cortex and processed in Wernicke’s area<br></br><br></br>Written word comes through visual cortex, is processed in angular gyrus, then Wernicke’s area. Written word needs to be converted to auditory format.

50
Q

Transcortical motor aphasia:

A

<b>Non fluent speech, but can repeat long sentences</b><br></br><br></br>Damage to frontal lobe (ant. to Brocas)

51
Q

Transcortical sensory aphasia:

A

<b>Poor comprehension, but can repeat long sentences</b><br></br><br></br>Damage to junction of temporal, parietal and occipital lobes

52
Q

Define anomia:

A

Subject shows inability to produce words for things that they want to talk about

53
Q

Regarding language, what structural changes occur during ageing?

A

Volumetric loss<br></br><br></br>(Grey matter around lateral prefrontal cortex and hippocampus, some white matter as well)

54
Q

What language impairments occur with age?

A

1) Reduced speech intelligibility (because ↓ sensory and perceptual changes)<br></br><br></br>2) Compromised comprehension of complex sentences (due to limits in working memory capacity)<br></br><br></br>3) Word finding difficulties (TOTs)

55
Q

What aspect of language is not affected by ageing?

A

1) Vocabulary (can be increased)<br></br><br></br>2) Detection of misspellings<br></br><br></br>3) Syntax (ability to process sentence structure)

56
Q

Define elderspeak

A

Speech adopted when speaking to older adults to accommodate the anticipated communication difficulties

57
Q

Define apraxia:

A

Difficulty performing purposeful/voluntary movements<br></br><br></br>(difficulty performing the movements to command/imitation but can perform them spontaneously)

58
Q

4 types of apraxia:

A

Limb apraxia<br></br>Oral apraxia<br></br>Graphic apraxia<br></br>Constructional apraxia

59
Q

Role of:<br></br><br></br>1) Posterior parietal cortex<br></br>2) Lateral premotor cortex<br></br>3) Supplementary motor cortex

A

<b>1) Posterior parietal cortex</b> → Mediates spatial perception and direction of movement<br></br><br></br><b>2) Lateral premotor cortex</b> → Important for movements with external cues<br></br><br></br><b>3) Supplementary motor cortex</b> → Important for bimanual co-ordination and internal generation of action

60
Q

Role of pre-frontal cortex:

A

1) Holding information ‘online’ in working memory to attend to it<br></br>2) Allowing emotions to contribute to complex decision making<br></br>3) Inhibitory control of irrelevant or inappropriate actions

61
Q

Regarding judgement biases, what types of events are overestimated?

A

<b>Accessible events</b> are over-estimated<br></br>- These can include rare events or those that are more famous

62
Q

Define conjunction fallacy:

A

“Probability of A occurring should be less than the probability of A occurring + the probability of B occurring. Conjunction fallacy states that this isn’t always the case as ““availability”” can skew our judgement. Example = words ending in ___ing vs words ending in ____n_”

63
Q

Define subadditivity:

A

“Availability can affect how we unpack a category.<br></br><br></br>E.g. ““All of the above”” can seem more significant if examples are given”

64
Q

Define base-rate neglect:

A

When presented with base-rate information + specific information - mind tends to focus on the latter

65
Q

Define Gambler’s fallacy

A

The mistaken belief that if something occurs more frequently than normal/expected, in the future it will occur less frequently

66
Q

Regarding theories of cognitive development:<br></br><br></br>Define nativism

A

Nativism states that cognitive skills are consequences of genetically pre-programmed cognitive mechanisms. This theory suggests that areas of the brain act as modules (specialised to process specific inputs)

67
Q

Regarding theories of cognitive development:<br></br><br></br>Define Empiricism

A

Empiricism states that the newborn mind is a blank slate and experiences are written upon this

68
Q

Regarding theories of cognitive development:<br></br><br></br>Define Constructivist

A

Constructivism states that mental structures develop out of interaction with physical and social reality - knowledge is constructed via child’s action upon their environment

69
Q

Regarding theories of cognitive development:<br></br><br></br>Define Neoconstructivism

A

Neuroconstructivism is a theory that states that <b>gene-gene interaction</b>, <b>gene-environment</b> interaction and, crucially, <b>ontogeny</b> are all considered to play a vital role in how the brain progressively sculpts itself and how it gradually becomes specialized over developmental time

70
Q

What are Piaget’s stages of development?

A

<b>Sensorimotor stage</b> 0-2yrs<br></br><b>Pre operational stage</b> 2-6yrs<br></br><b>Concrete operational stage</b> 6-12yrs<br></br><b>Formal operational</b> 12yrs +

71
Q

What occurs in sensorimotor stage?

A

Initially there is <b>infantile egocentrism</b> (cannot draw distinction between self + external world)<br></br><br></br>Child begins to understand world through interaction with it<br></br><br></br>1st actions are innate sensors-motor schemas (sucking/grasping)<br></br><br></br>End of this period is marked by beginning of <b>representational thought</b> (ability to call to mind a representation of an object or person who is not currently present)

72
Q

What is representational thought?

A

Ability to call to mind a representation of an object/person who is not currently present

73
Q

What are criticisms of Piaget’s stages?

A

Underestimates infant competence.<br></br><br></br>Tests (‘violation of expectation’ showed that some children at 3.5 months understand object permanence

74
Q

Define theory of mind:

A

It is a social cognition whereby we develop a theory of what others minds may contain<br></br><br></br>May not develop until ?4yrs old?

75
Q

What are two developmental changes in the adolescent brain?

A

1) ↑ activity of nucleus accumbens (reward system) - can explain impulsive behaviour<br></br><br></br>2) Subtle changes in the prefrontal cortex (may underly egocentricity and lack of regard to future consequences)

76
Q

How was a child’s IQ score defined?

A

His mental age divided by his chronological age and multiplied by 100

77
Q

What is deviation IQ?

A

A measure of how far an adult’s score deviates from the population mean

78
Q

What is the name of the modern IQ test?

A

Wechsler Intelligent scale for adults - revised (WAIS-R)

79
Q

What are the subtests of WAIS-R tests?

A

1) Verbal (6 subtests)<br></br>2) Performance (5 subtests)

80
Q

Define heritability:

A

The proportion of the variation in an individual due to genetic differences

81
Q

What environmental variables contribute to IQ?

A

1) Neighbourhood<br></br>2) Type of accommodation<br></br>3) Number of siblings<br></br>4) Birth order<br></br>5) Parental income

82
Q

What IQ changes occur with ageing?

A

Performance IQ ↓<br></br>Verbal IQ stays the same

83
Q

What pathologies affect IQ?

A

<b>1) Alzheimers disease (AD)</b><br></br>- ↓ performance IQ<br></br>- ↓ some aspects of verbal IQ<br></br><br></br><b>2) Williams syndrome (WS)</b><br></br>- Relatively higher verbal IQ compared to performance<br></br><br></br><b>3) Autism spectrum conditions (ASC)</b><br></br>- High performance IQ compared to verbal IQ

84
Q

What are positive symptoms for schizophrenia?

A

Delusions<br></br>Hallucinations

85
Q

Define hallucination

A

Sensory experience in absence of stimulus

86
Q

Define delusions

A

Abnormal and firmly held beliefs that are contrary to reality

87
Q

What are negative symptoms for schizophrenia?

A

Avolition <br></br>Alogia<br></br>Anhedonia<br></br>Affective flattening<br></br>Asociability <br></br><br></br><b>Negative symptoms are poor prognostic indicators</b>

88
Q

What are other symptoms for schizophrenia?

A

1) Disorganised speech<br></br>2) Disorganised behaviour<br></br>3) Catonia/motor abnormalities<br></br>4) Catonic immobility<br></br>5) Waxy flexibility<br></br>6) Inappropriate effect

89
Q

What brain area is overactive in delusions/hallucinations?

A

Left parahippocampal region and left striatum

90
Q

What brain area is overactive in poverty of speech/facial expressions?

A

Pre-frontal cortex, cingulate and head of caudate

91
Q

What are the subtypes of schizophrenia?

A

1) Paranoid (most common)<br></br>2) Disorganised<br></br>3) Catatonic<br></br>4) Residual<br></br>5) Undifferentiated

92
Q

Etiological theories about schizophrenia?

A

1) Schizophrenogenic mother theory<br></br>2) High expressed emotion (EE)<br></br>3) More in ↓ SES<br></br>4) More in cities (social drift)<br></br>5) Genetics (44% concordance in MZ twins)<br></br>6) Viral invasion of brain<br></br>7) ↓ IQ

93
Q

Define expressed emotion:

A

A measure of a family’s involvement/attitude towards a family member with a disorder

94
Q

What changes to the brain ventricles are seen on brain imaging in schizophrenia?

A

Enlarged ventricles (loss of brain volume/mass)

95
Q

What neurotransmitter is implicated in Schizophrenia?

A

↑ Dopamine → positive symptoms<br></br>↓ Dopamine → negative symptoms

96
Q

What drugs can treat schizophrenia?

A

<b>Typical</b><br></br>Haloperidol<br></br>Chlorprozamine <br></br>Clopixol<br></br><br></br><b>Atypical</b><br></br>Olanzapine<br></br>Risperidone<br></br>Clozapine

97
Q

What is Beck’s cognitive theory on depression?

A

Depression is secondary to early loss, emotional abuse + excessive criticism<br></br><br></br>Involves:<br></br><br></br>1) Negative triad (views on self, world and future)<br></br><br></br>2) Negative schemata (Feeling inept, self blaming and -ve self-evaluation)<br></br><br></br>Negative schemata causes cognitive bias

98
Q

What is the concordance of depression and bipolar in monozygotic twins?

A

Depression = 0.5<br></br><br></br>Bipolar = 0.75

99
Q

What neurotransmitters are involved with depression?

A

1) Monoamines (↓ monoamines → depression)<br></br><br></br>2) Serotonin (↓ 5-HT)

100
Q

What hormone is involved with depression?

A

Cortisol<br></br><br></br>Over-activity in HPA → ↑ cortisol → depression<br></br><br></br>Evidence = Cushing’s have more depression

101
Q

What functional changes are seen when neuroimaging depressed patients?

A

Prefrontal cortex → ↓ activity<br></br>Anterior Cinuglate → ↓ activity<br></br><br></br>Amygdala → ↑ activity

102
Q

Drugs for depression:

A

<b>SSRIs</b><br></br>- Fluoxetine<br></br>- Citalopram<br></br>- Sertraline<br></br><b>SNRIs</b><br></br>- Venlaflaxine<br></br><b>TCAs</b><br></br>- Amitriptyline<br></br>- Imipramine<br></br><b>MAOIs</b><br></br>- Phenelezine

103
Q

What are the different types of bipolar?

A

Type I = ≥1 episode of mania/mixed episode<br></br><br></br>Type II = ≥ 1 major depressive episode + ≥ 1 episode of hypomania<br></br><br></br>Type II ½ - Milder form (cyclothymis)<br></br><br></br>Type III - Antidepressant induced

104
Q

Symptoms of bipolar:

A

Distractibility<br></br>Indiscretion<br></br>Grandiosity<br></br>Flight of ideas<br></br>Activity ↑<br></br>Sleep deficit<br></br>Talkativeness

105
Q

Drugs for bipolar:

A

<b>Mood stabilisers</b><br></br>Lithium<br></br>Gabapentin<br></br>Carbamazepine<br></br>Valporate<br></br>Lamotrigine<br></br><br></br><b>Atypical antipsychotics</b><br></br>Quetiapine<br></br>Olanzapine<br></br>Risperidone

106
Q

Describe four features of LTP that make it a good candidate for a cellular mechanism for memory:

A

Rapidly induced, long lasting, synapse-specific, can be associative

MedST IB: Neurobiology and Human Behaviour (NHB) (11 decks)

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