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Developmental Biology > 1: NATURE AND SCOPE OF DEVELOPMENT > Flashcards

1: NATURE AND SCOPE OF DEVELOPMENT Flashcards

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1
Q

interdisciplinary field that is at foundation of biology
accdg. to Barresi and Gilbert 2020

A

Developmental biology

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2
Q

Seeks to elucidate the cellular and molecular mechanism that drive changes in cells, tissues and organs over time - a timescale that spans all of life, from fertilization to aging.

A

Developmental biology

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3
Q

First known embryologist

A

Aristotle

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4
Q

Aristotle undertaken the first known study of _

A

comparative developmental anatomy

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5
Q

Aristotle’s On the Generation of Animals on life cycle themes:

A
  • born from eggs (oviparity)
  • born by live birth (viviparity)
  • born by producing an egg that hatches inside the body (ovoviviparity)
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6
Q
  • born from eggs
A

(oviparity)

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7
Q
  • born by live birth
A

(viviparity)

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8
Q
  • born by producing an egg that hatches inside the body
A

(ovoviviparity)

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9
Q

2 major cell division Aristotle identified by which embryos are formed

A

Holoblastic pattern
Meroblastic pattern

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10
Q

Patter of cleavage (in which the entire egg is divided into successively smaller eggs, as it is in frogs and mammals)

A

Holoblastic

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11
Q

pattern of cleavage (as in chicks, wherein only part of the
egg is destined to become the embryo, while the other portion—the yolk—serves as nutrition for the embryo)

A

meroblastic

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12
Q

concluded that all animals—even mammals—originate from
eggs

A

1651
▪ William Harvey

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13
Q

“all from egg” is the motto on the frontispiece of
Harvey’s On the Generation of Living Creatures, and this precluded the spontaneous generation of animals from __

A

ex ovo omnia

mud or excrement

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14
Q

William Harvey was the first to see the ____ (the small region of
the egg containing the yolk-free cytoplasm that gives rise to the embryo)

A

blastoderm of the chick embryo

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15
Q

William Harvey was the first to notice that ____ before the heart
does

A

“islands” of blood tissue form

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16
Q

he also suggested that the amniotic fluid might function as a “shock absorber” for the embryo

A

William Harvey

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17
Q

published the first microscopic account of chick
development

A

Marcello Malpighi

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18
Q

Marcello Malpighi

for the first time, the groove of the forming ____, the
____, and the ____ of the arteries and
veins—to and from the yolk—were identified

A

neural tube
muscle-forming somites
first circulation

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19
Q

built a microscope; discovered sperms in human
semen

A

Anton Van Leeuwenhoek

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20
Q

saw the mammalian egg under microscope

A

Karl Ernst von Baer

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21
Q

postulated that egg and sperm cells are equivalent

A

Matthias Jakob Schleiden and Theodor Schwann

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22
Q

discovered the fusion of sperm and egg nuclei during
fertilization in sea urchins; provided a conceptual basis for genetic inheritance and settled the long-standing debate on the role of the egg and sperm in
generation of new life

A

Oscar Hertwig

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23
Q

discovered and understand mitosis;
great step towards understanding growth and development

A

Walther Fleming (German biologist)

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24
Q

founder of the science of cytogenetics

A

Walther Fleming

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25
Q

Walther Fleming

  • as the first to detail the chromosomal movements in the process of ____
  • he used aniline dyes, a by-product of coal tar, to stain cells of
    salamander embryos
A

mitosis

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26
Q

Walther Fleming discovered that “the nucleus always splits ____

A

before the cell does”

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27
Q

Walther Fleming

he was able to visualize the ____ as the cells divide

A

threadlike material (chromatin)

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28
Q

accurately drew pronuclear fusion in mouse

A

Johannes Sobotta

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29
Q

on Preformation versus Epigenesis (two persistent
ways of describing and seeking to explain the development of individual
organic form)

A

Thomas Hunt Morgan

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30
Q

the form of living things exists, in real terms, prior to
their development instead of assembly from parts; generation of
offspring occurs as a result of an unfolding and growth of preformed
parts

A

Preformation

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31
Q

the embryological theory according to which “organs […]
are progressively formed from, or emerge from, an originally
undifferentiated, homogenous [material]” (Smith 1976, p. 264). …;
▪ for Aristotle, ____ could be seen as a general process that
explained the development of a form

A

epigenesis

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32
Q

3 to 4 decades of 20th Century

▪ genetics and embryology remained disconnected
▪ celebrated embryologists in 1930 (Frank Lillie, H. Spemann, R. Harrison and E. E. Just) did not think that ____ have anything to do with early embryonic
development
▪ they claimed that geneticists had no mechanism to explain how the same
nuclear genes could create different cell types during development

A

genes

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33
Q

believed in the relationship between inducer and
competent tissues paralleled that of the genes and the cytoplasm

A

Conrad Hal Waddington

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34
Q

Conrad Hal Waddington

genes and the cytoplasm were in ____

A

continual dialogue

he said that, “Neither cytoplasm nor nucleus can be disregarded: in fact the
most important subject to discuss is how they affect each other”

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35
Q

an evolutionary morphologist, argued that some
directing substance or substances had to exist to cause the egg of one species
to develop differently from that of another species even though the eggs look
identical and are in the same environment

A

William Keith Brooks

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36
Q

linked heredity to development

A

William Keith Brooks

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37
Q

– combined genetics and embryology

A

B. Ephrussi, G.W. Beadle

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38
Q

B. Ephrussi, G.W. Beadle traced the pathway through which the vermilion and related genes
affected or determined eye color of

A

Drosophila

transplantation of mutant imaginal disks fated to become eyes
into wild-type larvae led to demonstration of distinct diffusible
substances manufactured or controlled by wild-type alleles at
the vermilion and cinnabar loci, which controlled distinct steps
in the formation of the brown component of normal Drosophila
eye

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39
Q

is the study of the process by which organisms grow and
develop

A

Developmental Biology

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40
Q

Modern Developmental Biology now studies the genetic control of:

A

▪ Cell Growth;
▪ Cell Differentiation; and
▪ Morphogenesis

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41
Q

a subfield, is the study of the organisms between the one-cell stage (zygote) and
the end of the embryonic stage, which is not necessarily the beginning of free
living.

A

Embryology

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42
Q

embryonic development involves

A

cell division, cell growth, morphogenesis and
cell differentiation.

all these processes are involved in the formation of specialized tissues, organs
and organ systems of the new individual

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43
Q

describes the origin and the development of an organism from the
fertilized egg to its mature form

A

ontogenesis

44
Q

describes the process by which cells acquire a “type”

A

Cell Differentiation

involves structural and functional divergence of cells as they become
specialized during a multicellular organism’s development, dependent on the
control of gene expression, thus, the morphology of a cell may change
dramatically during differentiation but the genetic material remains the same,
with few exceptions

45
Q

cell that is able to differentiate into many cell types

A

Pluripotent

46
Q

types of Pluripotent

A

o Stem cells – in animals
o Meristematic cells – in higher plants

47
Q

cell that is able to differentiate into all cell types

A

Totipotent

48
Q

types of Totipotent

A

Zygote and Early Embryonic cells – in mammals

49
Q

Embryonic cells are ____ because they have the ability to
retain the potential to form all parts of the animal.

A

totipotent

In plants, many differentiated cells can become totipotent with
simple laboratory techniques.

50
Q

in most multicellular organisms, ____ cells are alike

A

not all

for example, cells that make up the skin are different from cells that
make up the inner organs. Yet, all of the different cell types in the human
body are all derived from a single fertilized egg through differentiation

51
Q

a process by which an unspecialized cell becomes specialized
into one of the many cells that make up the body, such as heart, liver or muscle
cell

A

differentiation

during differentiation, certain genes are turned on or activated while other genes
are switched off or inactivated; this process is intricately regulated
▪ as a result, a differentiated cell will develop specific structures and perform
certain functions

52
Q

▪ differentiation can involve changes in numerous aspects of cell physiology; ____ can all change during differentiation

A
  • size,
  • shape,
  • polarity,
  • metabolic activity,
  • responsiveness to signals and
  • gene expression profiles
53
Q

in cytopathology, the ____ is used as a measure of
cancer progression

A

level of cellular differentiation

54
Q

three basic categories of cells that make up the mammalian body

A
  1. Germ (Sex) Cells
  2. Somatic (Body) Cells
  3. Stem Cells
55
Q

each of the approximately 100, 000, 000, 000, 000 cells in an adult human has
its own copy or copies of the genome (genetic material of an organism), with
the only exception being certain cell types that lack nuclei in their fully
differentiated state, such as ____

A

red blood cells

56
Q

the majority of these cells are ____ or have two copies of each chromosome; these cells are called somatic cells
o it includes most of the cells that make up the human body, such as skin
and muscle cells

A

diploid (2n)

57
Q

are any line of cells that give rise to gametes- eggs and sperm and are continuous through the generations

A

Germ line cells

58
Q

have the ability to divide for indefinite period and
to give rise to specialized cells

A

Stem cells,

59
Q

Morphogenesis came from the Greek

A

morphe “shape” and genesis “creation”

60
Q

one of the three fundamental aspects of developmental biology along with the
control of cell growth and cell differentiation

A

Morphogenesis

61
Q

concerned with the shapes of tissues, organs and entire organisms and the
positions of the various specialized cell types

A

Morphogenesis

62
Q

it involves an attempt to understand the process that control the organized
spatial distribution of cells that arises during the embryonic development of an
organism which give rise to the characteristic form of tissues, organs and overall
body anatomy

A

Morphogenesis

63
Q

Morphogenesis

in the human embryo, the change from a cluster of nearly identical cells at the
____ embryo with structured tissues and organs
is controlled by the genetic “program” and can be modified by environmental
factors

A

blastula stage to the post-gastrulation

64
Q

several important molecules that are important during morphogenesis are:

A
  • Morphogens
  • Transcription Factor Proteins
  • Molecules that control Cell Adhesion
65
Q

– Example, during gastrulation clumps
of stem cells switch off their cell-to-cell adhesion, become migratory, and take
up new positions with an embryo where they again activate specific cell
adhesion proteins and form new tissues and organs

A

Molecules that control Cell Adhesion

66
Q

determine the fate of cells by interacting with
DNA; these can be coded for by master regulatory genes and either activate or
deactivate the transcription other genes and in turn, these secondary gene
products can regulate the expression of still other genes in a regulatory cascade

A

Transcription Factor Proteins

67
Q

soluble molecules that can diffuse and carry signals that control
cell differentiation decisions in a concentration-dependent fashion; they
typically act through binding to specific protein receptors

A

Morphogens

68
Q

the process individual development from a single cell, an egg cell
or a zygote, to an adult organism

A

Ontogeny

69
Q

stages
of development

A
  • fertilization,
  • cleavage,
  • gastrulation,
  • organogenesis,
  • hatching (or birth),
  • metamorphosis, and
  • gametogenesis
70
Q

The stages of development between fertilization
and hatching (or birth) are collectively called

A

embryogenesis

71
Q

involves the fusion of the mature sex cells - sperm and egg, which are
collectively known as gametes

A

Fertilization

72
Q

fusion of the gamete cells stimulates the egg to begin development and
____

A

initiates a new individual

73
Q

subsequent fusion of the gamete nuclei (the male and female pronuclei,
each of which has ____the normal number of chromosomes
characteristic for the species) gives the embryo its genome (collection
of genes that helps instruct the embryo to develop in a manner very
similar to its parents)

A

only half

74
Q

series of mitotic divisions that immediately follow fertilization

A

Cleavage

75
Q

Cleavage

enormous volume of zygote cytoplasm is divided into numerous smaller
cells called

A

blastomeres

76
Q

by the end of cleavage, the blastomeres have usually formed a sphere,
known as a

A

blastula

77
Q

after the rate of mitotic division slows down, blastomeres undergo
dramatic movements & change their positions relative to one another

A

Gastrulation

78
Q

series of extensive cell rearrangements is called

A

gastrulation

(embryo is said to be in the gastrula stage)

79
Q

as a result of gastrulation, the embryo contains ____ that will interact to generate the
organs of the body

A

three germ layers
(endoderm, ectoderm, and mesoderm)

80
Q

germ layers

forms exoskeleton

A

ectoderm

81
Q

germ layers

develops into organs

A

mesoderm

82
Q

germ layers

forms the inner lining of organs

A

endoderm

83
Q

once the germ layers are established, the cells interact with one another
and rearrange themselves to produce tissues and organs

A

organogenesis

84
Q

organogenesis

____ are exchanged between the cells of the germ layers
(resulting in the formation of specific organs at specific sites)

A

chemical signals

85
Q

organogenesis

certain cells will undergo long migrations from their place of origin to
their final location
o these migrating cells include the precursors of ____

A
  • blood cells,
  • lymph cells,
  • pigment cells, and
  • gametes (eggs and sperm)
86
Q

in most species, the organism that hatches from the egg or is born into
the world is ______

A

not sexually mature

87
Q

organism needs to undergo ____ to become a sexually
mature adult

A

metamorphosis

88
Q

in most animals, the young organism is called a ____ (may look
significantly different from the adult)

A

larva

89
Q

in some species, the larval stage is the one that lasts the ____,
and is used for feeding or dispersal

A

longest

▪ in such species, the adult is a brief stage whose sole
purpose is to reproduce
▪ E.g. silkworm moths, for instance, the adults do not have
mouthparts and cannot feed; the larva must eat enough
so that the adult has the stored energy to survive and
mate. Indeed, most female moths mate as soon as they
enclose from the pupa, and they fly only once—to mate
and lay their eggs. Then they die.

90
Q

in many species, a group of cells is set aside to produce the next
generation (rather than forming the current embryo)

A

Gametes

  • these cells are the precursors of the gametes
  • gametes and their precursor cells are collectively called germ cells (set aside for reproductive function)
  • All other cells of the body are called somatic cells
  • this separation of somatic cells (which give rise to the individual body) and germ cells (which contribute to the formation of a new generation) is often one of the first differentiations to occur during animal development
91
Q

the germ cells eventually migrate to the ____, where they differentiate
into gametes

A

gonads

92
Q

The development of gametes (gametogenesis), is usually ____
until the organism has become physically mature

A

not completed

at maturity, the gametes may be released and participate in
fertilization to begin a new embryo

93
Q

After these, the adult organism eventually undergoes ____, its
nutrients often supporting the early embryogenesis of its offspring and its absence
allowing less competition. Thus, the cycle of life is renewed

A

senescence and dies

94
Q

the process of the fetus passing from the uterus into the outside world

A

Birth

95
Q

the act of conceiving or becoming pregnant; synonymous with
fertilization

A

Conception

96
Q

means “growing within” and refers to the “human offspring in the
first eight weeks following fertilization”

A

Embryo

97
Q

the first 8 weeks of human development starting with
fertilization; characterized by the formation of most
major body systems

A

Embryonic Period

98
Q

the process that starts with the sperm entering the egg or
oocyte, and ends with the joining of the female and male DNA
within the single cell zygote

A

Fertilization

99
Q

the time from the end of eight weeks through the end of
pregnancy; during this time the body grows larger and its
systems begin to function

A

Fetal Period

100
Q

means “unborn offspring” and refers to human offspring from 8 weeks
after fertilization until birth

A

Fetus

101
Q

the period of time around birth, from week 28 of pregnancy
until 7 days after birth

A

Perinatal Period

102
Q

the period of time following birth

A

Postnatal

103
Q

the condition of a female from the time of fertilization of her
oocyte until birth, normally lasting 38 weeks for humans (or 40
weeks if measured from a woman’s last menstrual period)

A

Pregnancy

104
Q

human development occurring between fertilization
and birth

A

Prenatal Development

105
Q

the period of time from fertilization until birth; ’pre’ means
before, ’natal’ means ’relating to birth’

A

Prenatal Period

106
Q

three month periods used to divide pregnancy into three stages
of approximately equal length

A

Trimesters

107
Q

the single-cell embryo that results from the joining of the sperm and
oocyte; means “yoked or joined together”

A

Zygote

Developmental Biology (6 decks)

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