1. Learning theory

Question 1

define learning

Answer 1

a process by which experience produces a relatively enduring change in an organism’s behaviour or capabilities

Question 2

in which 2 ways can learning be classified?

Answer 2

1. overt (behavioural) 2. covert (cognitive)

Question 3

what are the basic learning processes?

Answer 3

• non-associative learning: response to repeated stimuli -
• classical conditioning: learning the association between events and what they signal -
• operant conditioning: learning one thing leads to another (consequences) -
• observational learning: learning from others (imitational)

Question 4

what are habituation and sensitisation?

Answer 4

habituation - a decrease in the strength of a response to a repeated stimulus sensitisation - an increase in the strength of response to a repeated stimulus

Question 5

what are the different categories of classical conditioning?

Answer 5

STIMULI - unconditioned stimulus (UCS): a stimulus that elicits a reflexive or innate response (the UCR) without prior learning (a neutral stimulus)

• conditioned stimulus (CS): a stimulus that, through association with an UCS, comes to elicit a conditioned response similar to the original UCR

RESPONSES - unconditioned response (UCR): a reflexive or innate response that is elicited by a stimulus (the UCS) without prior learning -

conditioned response (CR): a response elicited by a conditioned stimulus

Question 6

what does the Pavlov’s dogs experiment show?

Answer 6

• the CS (bell) led to no response - the UCS (food) led to an innate response - over time if the bell was paired with the food enough, the dogs would salivate from hearing the bell (CS)

Question 7

when is classical conditioning strongest?

Answer 7

• there are repeated CS-UCS pairings (reinforcement)
• the UCS is more intense
• the sequence involves forward pairings (CS –> UCS)
• the time interval between the CS and UCS is short

Question 8

how is a response extinguished?

Answer 8

as long as pairings exist behaviours are relatively stable after a while if the CS (e.g. bell) is presented alone without the UCS (food) the strength of the response (salivation) reduces, though never fully disappears

Question 9

What is extinction?

Spontaneous recovery

Stimulus generalisation

Discrimination

Higher-order conditioning?

Answer 9

Stimulus generalisation : a tendency to respond to stimuli that are similar, but not identical, to a conditioned stimulus this is exploited in advertising and branding - similar stimuli will elicit the CR but in a weaker form

Extinction: A process in which the CS is presented repeatedly in the absence of the UCS, causing the CR to weaken and eventually disappear

Spontaneous recovery: The reappearance of a previously extinguished CR after a rest period and without new learning trials

Stimulus generalisation: Stimuli similar to the initial CS elicit a CR. For example, salivation may be elicited by a bell or a piano tone

Discrimination: A CR occurs in the presence of one stimulus but not others. For example, salivation may not be elicited by a whistle

Higher-order conditioning: Occurs when a neutral stimulus becomes a CS after being paired with an already established CS

Produces a CR that is weaker and extinguishes more rapidly than the original CR

Question 10

how may classical conditioning occur in chemotherapy patients?

Answer 10

• 25-30% of patients experience anticipatory nausea/vomiting - chemotherapy (UCS) –> nausea (UCR) - related cues (e.g. sight of unit) –> anticipatory nausea (CR)

Question 11

what was tested to find out the anticipatory immune decline of chemotherapy patients?

Answer 11

• blood samples were taken at home and at the hospital prior to chemotherapy - patients rated their feelings of nausea and their NK cell activity was measured in response to mitogens - patients felt more nauseous in hospital and had lower immune function suggesting classical conditioning can have both a physiological and psychological response

Question 12

how can the CS of the chemo unit be changed for chemo patients?

Answer 12

• patients experiencing anticipatory nausea were divided into 2 groups - one group was given an unpleasant drink. the other water - patients given the unpleasant drink showed a significantly reduced anticipatory nausea when coming to the clinic because the CS had been altered to respond to the drink

Question 13

describe the ‘little albert’ experiment by john watson

Answer 13

• a child would play with a white rat without it evoking any response - a CS of a loud noise was introduced during interaction which evoked fear in the child after a few pairings - the experiment was repeated with other objects and strong fear was evoked in response to the rabbit, dog and coat (CR)

Question 14

what is the 2-factor theory of maintenance of classically conditioned associations?

Answer 14

trauma (UCS) and needles (CS) –> fear (UCR) avoiding injections –> fear reduced –> tendency to avoid is reinforced (negative reinforcement) this is operant conditioning

Question 15

what is thorndike’s law of effect?

Answer 15

a response followed by a satisfying consequence will be more likely to occur a response followed by an aversive consequence will become less likely to occur

Question 16

What is operant conditioning?

what is positive reinforcement?

what is negative reinforcement?

Answer 16

occurs when a response is strengthened by the subsequent presentation of a reinforcer POSITIVE = presentation of stimulus

Positive presence of a stimulus

Negative absence of a stimulus

Reinforcement increases behavior

Punishment decreases behavior

Escape removes a stimulus

Avoidance prevents a stimulus

Question 17

what are primary and secondary reinforcers?

Answer 17

primary reinforcers: those needed for survival (e.g. food, water, sleep, sex) secondary reinforcers: stimuli that acquire reinforcing properties through their association with primary reinforcers (e.g. money, praise)

Question 18

what is negative reinforcement?

Answer 18

occurs when a response is strengthened by the removal/avoidance of an aversive stimulus NEGATIVE = removal of stimulus

Question 19

what is positive punishment?

Answer 19

occurs when a response is weakened by the presentation of a stimulus (e.g. squirting a cat with water when it poos inside)

Question 20

what is negative punishment?

Answer 20

occurs when a response is weakened by the removal of a stimulus (e.g. phone confiscated)

Question 21

which has more of an influence out of reinforcers and punishers and why?

Answer 21

reinforcers punishment can only make certain responses less frequent, you can’t teach new behaviour

Question 22

what is operant extinction?

Answer 22

the weakening and eventual disappearance of a response because it is no longer reinforced

Question 23

what is resistance to extinction?

Answer 23

the degree to which non-reinforced responses persist

Question 24

what was discovered about reinforcement schedules?

Answer 24

continuous reinforcement produces more rapid learning than partial reinforcement (the association is easier to understand) however continuously reinforced responses extinguish faster that partially reinforced responses because the shift to no reinforcement is sudden and easier to understand

Question 25

what are the different types of reinforcement schedules?

Answer 25

• fixed interval schedule: reinforcement occurs after fixed time interval - variable interval schedule: the time interval varies at random around an average - fixed ratio schedule: reinforcement is given after a fixed number of responses - variable ratio schedule: reinforcement is given after a variable number of responses, centred around an average

Question 26

when is operant conditioning seen in medicine?

Answer 26

• chronic pain behaviour includes limping, grimacing and med requests - this is reinforced by family and staff by showing sympathy and encouraging rest/medication - a cycle is created where the patient received positive consequences for “being in pain” so pain is more likely to occur in frequency

Question 27

what is Bandura’s cognitive approach?

Answer 27

humans are active information processors and think about the relationship between their behaviour and its consequences (due to cognitive skills) social imitation may hasten or short-cut the acquisition of new behaviours without the necessity of reinforcing learning can occur by things that aren’t directly experienced

Question 28

what is the social learning theory?

Answer 28

• observational (vicarious) learning : we observe the behaviours of others and the consequences of those behaviours - vicarious reinforcement: if their behaviours are reinforced we tend to imitate the behaviours (the more often something is reinforced, the more likely it is going to be imitated)

Question 29

what are the steps to successful modelling of observational learning?

Answer 29

1. pay attention to model 2. remember what was done 3. reproduce modelled behaviour 4. if successful or if behaviour is rewarded the behaviour is more likely to occur

Question 30

what was the bobo doll experiment and what did it show?

Answer 30

• done by Bandura, 1961 - 72 children spent time in a playroom where an adult either modelled non-aggressive play (building) of aggressive play (punching a bobo doll) - all children spent 20 more mins alone in the room and behaviour was observed - children who observed aggressive behaviour showed a much higher level of aggression towards the doll

Question 31

when are we more likely to imitate behaviour?

Answer 31

model is: - seen to be rewarded - high status - similar to us - friendly

Question 32

what are expert patients?

Answer 32

programmes and groups for newly diagnosed patients with an expert patient in the group who talks about their experience the expert patient successfully manages their condition and are a role-model for other patients to follow

Question 33

What is the difference by classical conditioning and operant conditioning?

Answer 33

Classical: Behaviour changes are due to the association of two stimuli (CS-UCS) presented prior to the response (CR)

Focuses on elicited behaviours

Operant: Behaviour changes as the result of the consequences that follow it (reinforcement or punishment)

Focuses on emitted behaviours

Primary reinforcers: stimuli, such as food and water, that an organism naturally finds reinforcing because they satisfy biological needs

Secondary reinforcers: stimuli that acquire reinforcing properties through their association with primary reinforcers