1. Introduction to Philosophy of Religion Flashcards
What do Buddhists believe about God?
he is not omnipotent
What do Buddhists believe is the way to achieve Nirvana?
by breaking the cycle of rebirth & achieving enlightenment
What distinguishes Nirvana from Heaven?
Nirvana is a state of eternal being, the end of suffering, with no desires & no individual.
Who do Mahayana Buddhists worship?
Mahayana Buddhists worship bodhisattvas, who are god-like figures that have gained enlightenment however take intention to stay in the world to help others.
What role do bodhisattvas play in Buddhism?
Bodhisattvas are enlightened beings who have chosen to help others achieve enlightenment rather than entering Nirvana themselves.
What is Manjushri in Tibetan Buddhism?
Manjushri is a representation of the bodhisattvas & symbolises the wisdom & compassion of Buddha.
Who is Avalokiteshvara in Buddhism?
Avalokiteshvara is a bodhisattva representing compassion & is worshiped in various forms of Buddhism.
What does the goddess Tara represent?
Tara is worshipped for her compassion, which reflects the compassion of the Buddha.
How is the Buddha worshipped in Buddhism?
the Buddha (Siddhartha Gautama) is worshipped not as a God but as a human who gained enlightenment
What is the majority of Western philosophy (of religion) concerned with?
attempting to prove the existence of God, or at least to show that belief in God is logically coherent
Why does part of Western philosophy (of religion) conflict with Judaeo-Christian theism?
the question of God’s existence (or perhaps, more importantly, his non-existence), is not an issue with Islam
What does “At Ta’eel” mean in Islam?
- denial of Allah’s perfection or attributes
- failing to worship Allah
- associating others with Allah (shirk)
Describe the actions that define “At Ta’eel”
- denying Allah’s attributes
- worshipping other gods or humans alongside Allah (shirk)
- claiming the world can be explained without reference to Allah
How is the denial of Allah’s 99 names viewed in Islam?
it is considered “At Ta’eel” & a denial of Allah’s perfection
What is “shirk” in Islam?
worshipping other gods or human beings alongside Allah
Why are debates about the existence of God not tolerated in Islam?
they are considered blasphemous
How does Islam view explaining the world without reference to Allah?
it is seen as “At Ta’eel,” a denial of Allah
Where did the problem of God’s existence originate from?
the philosophical preoccupation with proof & evidence
Describe the example of the teacher to explain arguments about God’s existence
- it is not necessary for a teacher to prove her existence to her students because she is so overwhelmingly obvious to them
- there are constant physical, empirical indications of the teacher’s existence that students pick up through use of their physical senses: she can be seen, heard, touched & perceived as a set of sense data
- the students have no reason to believe that they are deceived by any of these data and, although they may come to know other less overwhelmingly obvious things about the teacher, the fact that their relationship is clearly being acted in the physical world is the primary basis for the knowledge & understanding her
Compare the argument of God’s existence to the example of the teacher
- God cannot be known in this way
- although believers may claim that they hear God and speak to him, that they feel him in their lives in a vivid & real way, that experience can never be the same as their experience of another human being who exists in the spatiotemporal (space-time) world
What is used in Islam to represent God & why?
Islamic calligraphy is used to express the nature of God since pictorial images of God & his works are forbidden in Islam
What limitations do we face in reaching conclusions about God?
our experience & reasoning powers are limited because they are human
Why might the evidence of our senses by insufficient for proving the existence of God?
the evidence of our senses may not lead to conclusive proof
What is required when relying on the testimony of others about the existence of God?
we must be convinced that their interpretation of the evidence is correct
What has the awareness of our limited reasoning led to in the context of proving God’s existence?
it has led to the development of the formal proofs that employ logical processes
What do formal proofs for the existence of God aim to demonstrate?
they aim to demonstrate the reasonableness of belief in God
Are formal proofs for the existence of God universally accepted?
no, they are open to considerable criticism
Which two interpretations are commonly used to explain belief in God?
- propositional
- non-propositional
Explain propositional belief in God
the belief that there is an objective reality to which we ascribe the term God, & that we can make claims about him which themselves are objectively true
Explain non-propositional belief in God
- a trust in God that may be held even when evidence or experience would seem to point against it
- this kind of faith must be based in some personal knowledge of God, & not simply in accepting facts about him
What example can we use to illustrate non-propositional faith?
Basil Mitchell uses the Parable of the Partisan & the Stranger to illustrate the nature of non-propositional faith
What are partisans also known as?
terrorists
In the parable, who does the partisan meet?
a stranger who claims to be the leader of resistance
What does the stranger urge the partisan to do?
to have faith in him whatever the circumstances, even if the stranger’s actions appear to contradict his claim
How does the partisan respond to the stranger’s actions that come across as conflicting towards his interests?
he remains committed to his belief in the stranger’s integrity, believing that the stranger is still on his side
What do the partisan’s friends think of his faith in the stranger?
they think he is a fool for holding onto his belief in the stranger
What gives the partisan confidence to maintain his faith in the stranger?
the original encounter with the stranger gave him sufficient confidence to hold on to his faith, even when evidence counted against it
What does the Parable of the Partisan demonstrate?
the problem of talking meaningfully about belief in God, because the believer has not allowed anything to count against his faith
Why is it difficult to talk meaningfully about belief in God according to the parable?
because the believer maintains faith regardless of contradicting evidence, similar to the partisan’s faith in the stranger
Despite the problem of proving God’s existence, what have religious believers & philosophers done?
they have continued to pose formal proofs that address many of the atheist’s challenges
What two categories do most arguments for the existence of God fall into?
- a priori
- a posteriori
What are “a priori” arguments?
arguments which are entirely conceptual
What are “a posteriori” arguments?
arguments which are essentially world based
What is the ontological argument?
the ontological argument reasons from the definition of God to his necessary existence
Which category does the ontological argument fall into?
the ontological argument falls into the “a priori” category
What does it mean if God has necessary existence?
it means that God cannot not exist, i.e. it is impossible to conceive of him not existing
What is the nature of beings other than God according to the text?
all other beings are contingent, meaning they may or may not exist
How do contingent beings relate to God according to the concept of necessary existence?
contingent beings necessarily depend on God for their own existence
What might atheists argue about believers’ acceptance of evidence against God?
Atheists may argue that since believers do not allow anything to count against their belief in God, all arguments are flawed
Why do atheists believe that criticisms raised against believers will not carry real weight?
because believers do not allow anything to count against their belief in God, thus dismissing any criticisms
What do some atheists claim about the conclusions of theists compared to their own?
that their conclusions are just as likely as theists’ conclusions
What challenge do some atheists point out about theistic & atheistic conclusions?
that there is no way of verifying or falsifying either theistic or atheistic conclusions
What does Psalm 14:1 say about the existence of God?
the psalmist wrote: ‘The fool has said in his heart there is no God’ (Psalm 14:1), effectively dismissing the need to prove the existence of God because it was foolishness to deny it
Compare the writings (about the existence of God) of biblical and classical theists
however, although God may have been overwhelmingly obvious to the biblical writers, the philosophical tradition of classical theism has consistently tackled the need to prove the existence of a being who is beyond time & space
What are the most common two categories (of arguments) that appeal to the world as proof of God’s existence?
- cosmological
- teleological
What does cosmological refer to?
the existence of the world as deeming an explanation
What does teleological refer to?
features of the world such as order & purpose but also its fittingness for human life & its aesthetic (beautiful) appearance
Other than cosmological & teleological arguments, what other types of arguments are occasionally offered to prove God’s existence?
moral arguments, arguments from human consciousness, and religious experience
What does the moral argument conclude about God?
that God is the necessary source of moral obligation
List the seven factors the philosopher Richard Swinburne uses to suggest cumulative (growing) arguments towards the existence of God
- the very existence of the universe
- the fact that the universe is ordered
- the existence of consciousness
- human opportunities to do good
- the pattern of history
- the evidence of miracles
- religious experience
What does Swinburne suggest the cumulative argument does for the probability of God’s existence?
it increases the probability of God’s existence by counterbalancing the weaknesses of one argument with the strengths of another
What must be questioned for every argument of God’s existence?
whether the argument lives up to the standards applied to other philosophical arguments
What two qualities should an argument for the existence of God possess?
it should be valid, and it’s premises should be true
Why might an argument for the existence of God appeal to some but not to others?
the nature of the subject of the proof leaves it open questions of truth & validity
What is the goal of some attempts to establish the rationality of God’s existence? Explain its significance along with examples.
- to show that it is rational or reasonable to believe that God exists, not necessarily to prove it
- these attempts have also been popular in Western theistic philosophy
- examples include “Pascal’s Wager” & the arguments of thinker Alvin Plantinga
What is “Pascal’s Wager”?
it argues that even if God’s existence cannot be proven, it is more prudent (wise) to gamble on his existence to avoid the potential consequences of being wrong
What is a “properly basic belief” according to Alvin Plantinga?
a belief in God that does not need external proof but is non-foundation, with religious experience possibly supporting it
Why are proofs for God’s existence still offered despite the idea of basic belief?
because explanations are needed for certain phenomena within the universe that are not self-explanatory & require external explanation
What is seen to be a possibility to show that the non-existence of God is logically impossible?
- i.e. that it is impossible to conceive of his non-existence
- this could be claimed from an explanation of the term ‘God’, which Anselm stated contained everything that was necessary to know about God, including the indisputable fact of his existence
What is the significance of the universe being religiously ambiguous?
- because the universe is religiously ambiguous it can be interpreted in religious or non-religious ways
- arguments for the existence of God seek to demonstrate that the most satisfactory way of interpreting the universe is by reference to God
How should arguments for the existence of God always be thought as?
in terms of proof
What is the etymology of philosophy?
- in Ancient Greek ‘philo’ means love & ‘sophia’ means wisdom
- i.e. philosophers are in the pursuit for freedom
What is the study of philosophy?
fundamental nature of knowledge, reality & existence
How would you respond to someone who asks if God exists?
- open-minded response/you can only inform
- would ask if any experiences/word of mouth influenced them to ask this question
- question their interpretation of what God is - is he a higher power, in a human form etc
