1. Introduction to Human Physiology Flashcards
What is the organization of the human body (least complex to most complex)?
molecules, cell, tissue, organ, organ system, organism
The 4 Primary Tissue Types
(1) Epithelial tissue
(2) Connective tissue
(3) Nerve tissue
(4) Muscle Tissue
Epithelial tissue
- Simple or stratified (by the number of cell layer)
- Squamous, cuboidal, or columnar (by the shape of the cell)
Connective tissue
- Connective tissue proper (loose/dense, regular/irregular)
- Specialized connective tissue (e.g. blood, bone)
Nerve tissue
Neuron or neuroglia (or glial cell)
Muscle tissue
Skeletal, smooth, or cardiac
How many body systems are there? Name them.
(1) Circulatory
(2) Digestive
(3) Endocrine
(4) Immune
(5) Integumentary
(6) Lymphatic
(7) Musculoskeletal
(8) Nervous
(9) Reproductive
(10) Respiratory
(11) Urinary
Describe the anatomical position.
An individual in anatomical position is standing erect with arms at sides, palms facing forward with fingers pointing downward, feet parallel to each other and flat on the floor, and eyes directed forward
Anatomical Position: anterior view
Anterior view of human specimen standing upright in anatomical position. Arms are at the side with the palms facing forward. Legs and feet are parallel to one another
Anatomical View: supine view
Lateral (side) view of human specimen lying in a supine position. The body is face up, with the arms by the side
Anatomical View: prone view
Lateral (side) view of human specimen lying in a prone position. The body is face down, with the arms by the side
What are the body planes? Explain the division of body parts through these planes.
There are 5 planes of section.
(1) Coronal plane (frontal) - divides body in anterior and posterior
(2) Median plane (middle) - divides body in equal right and left
(3) Oblique plane - through the trunk
(4) Sagittal plane - separates right and left portions
(5) Transverse plane (horizontal) - separates superior and inferior portions or cross sections
What are the body cavities?
(1) Abdominal cavity
(2) Abdominopelvic cavity
(3) Cranial cavity
(4) Diaphragm
(5) Dorsal cavity
(6) Mediastinum
(7) Pelvic cavity
(8) Pulmonary cavity
(9) Thoracic cavity
(10) Ventral cavity
(11) Vertebral canal
What comprises the cardiovascular system?
(1) Arteries
(2) Heart
(3) Veins
What comprises the digestive system?
Esophagus, Gallbladder, Gastrointestinal tract, Large intestine, Liver, Oral cavity, Pancreas, Pharynx, Salivary glands, Small intestine, Stomach, Teeth, Tongue
What comprises the endocrine system?
Hypothalamus, Kidney, Ovary, Pancreas, Parathyroid glands, Pineal gland, Pituitary gland, Suprarenal gland, Testis, Thymus, Thyroid gland
What comprises the integumentary system?
Dermis, Epidermis, Exocrine glands of skin, Hair, Hair follicle, Hair root, Hair shaft, Subcutaneous tissue
What comprises the lymphatic system?
Bone marrow, Cisterna chyli, Lymph nodes, Lymphatic system, Lymphatic vessels, Mucosa-associated lymphatic tissue (MALT), Spleen, Thoracic duct, Thymus, Tonsils
What comprises the muscular system?
Muscular, Appendicular mm., Axial mm., Biceps brachii m., Deep fascia, Deltoid m., External abdominal oblique m., Muscles of facial expression, Muscular system, Pectoralis major m., Quadriceps femoris m., Rectus abdominis m., Sartorius m., Skeletal muscle, Sternocleidomastoid m., Tibialis anterior m.
What comprises the nervous system?
Brachial plexus, Brain, Brainstem, Central nervous system (CNS), Cerebellum, Cerebrum, Cervical plexus, Cranial nerves, Eye, Lumbosacral plexus, Nervous system, Peripheral nervous system (PNS), Spinal cord
What comprises the reproductive system?
Breast, Epididymis, Female reproductive system, Male reproductive system, Ovary, Penis, Prostate, Seminal vesicle, Testis, Urethra, Uterine tube, Uterus, Vagina, Vas deferens
What comprises the digestive system?
Esophagus, Gallbladder, Gastrointestinal tract, Large intestine, Liver, Oral cavity, Pancreas, Pharynx, Salivary glands, Small intestine, Stomach, Teeth, Tongue
What comprises the respiratory system?
Bronchi, Larynx, Lower respiratory tract, Lungs, Nasal cavity, Paranasal sinuses, Pharynx, Trachea
What comprises the skeletal system?
Appendicular skeleton, Axial skeleton, Skeletal system, Skeleton of lower limb, Skeleton of upper limb, Skull, Thoracic cage, Vertebral column
What comprises the urinary system?
Kidney, Ureter, Urethra, Urinary bladder, Urinary system
What is the percentage of body fluids and its compartments?
- Body fluid (total body water): 60% of the body weight
- Intracellular fluid (ICF): 67% of the total body water
- Extracellular fluid (ECF): 33% of the total body water
- Interstitial fluid (ISF): 26%
- Plasma: 7%
Homeostasis
All organ systems strive to obtain an optimal environment for cell activities
Dynamic consistency
- Dynamic mechanisms that ensure physiological variables at a constant level (“set point”)
- Often uses the “negative feedback” reflex to offset deviations from the set point (control system)
- e.g. blood glucose, body temperature, blood pressure
What are the two major paths for communication between cells? Which cells accomplish this communication?
(1) Short-distance: via nerve cells (neurotransmitters)
2) Long-distance: via endocrine cells (hormones
Explain how homeostasis and dynamic consistency occur in blood glucose levels.
Blood glucose levels increase after eating, however, levels return to their “set point” via homeostasis control mechanisms. The levels change over short periods of time, but remain relatively constant over long periods of time (dynamic consistency)
What are the components of the homeostatic control system?
(1) Integrating center
(2) Receptor
(3) Effector
What are the major structural elements in the cell?
Cell includes membrane, nucleus, organelles, and cytosol
What are the major functions of the cell membrane?
- A selective barrier to the passage of molecules
- Detecting chemical signals from other cells
- Anchoring cells to adjacent cells and to the extracellular matrix of connective-tissue proteins
Describe the cell membrane structure.
Bilayer (double layer) of lipid molecules containing embedded proteins (integral, peripheral)
Phospholipids
Major main membrane lipids (amphipathic); polar regions oriented toward cell surface with nonpolar fatty acid chains in the middle
Two types of membrane proteins
(1) Integral membrane protein
(2) Peripheral membrane protein
Fluid mosaic model
A “mosaic” or mix of membrane proteins are free to move in a sea of lipid
Functions of the cell membrane
(1) Regulate passage of substances into and out of cells and between cell organelles and cytosol
(2) Detect signals/chemical messengers arriving at the cell surface
(3) Link adjacent cells together by membrane junctions
(4) Anchor cells to the extracellular matrix
Membrane Junction: Desmosome
Withstand physical stretching
Membrane Junction: Tight Junction
Prevent movement of materials
Membrane Junction: Gap junction
Allow free movement of small molecules such as ionsi
Diffusion
A movement of molecules from one location to another as a result of their random thermal motion; net movement always occurs from higher to lower concentrations
What are the diffusion methods in the membrane?
(1) Lipid solubility: through lipid bilayer
(2) Channel opening: through ion channels
When across a membrane, the net flux goes..
Down an electrochemical concentration gradient
1) Electric energy (charge force)
2) Chemical energy (chemical gradient)
Ion channel: opens (“gating”) upon activation by 3 main factors
1) Voltage (electrical energy, i.e., action potential)
2) Ligand (chemical energy, i.e., hormones, neurotransmitters)
3) Mechanical force (mechanical energy)
Types of Ion Channel
1) Voltage-gated (e.g. Na+, K+, Ca++)
2) Ligand-gates (e.g. neurotransmitter, hormone)
3) Mechanically gated
Ion Channel: ECF and ICF
Electrocyte concentrations of ECF and ICF are drastically different, while the osmolarities are identical (due to sodium potassium pump)
How does an atom transform into an ion?
- If an atom gains or loses one or more electrons, it acquires a net electric charge and becomes an ion
- Hydrogen atoms and most mineral and trace element atoms readily form ions
Cations
Ions that have a net positive charge (e.g. Ca2+, Na+)
Anions
Ions that have a net negative charge (e.g. Cl-)
Mediated transport
Movement of molecules occur only by using transporters or carriers (integral proteins)
Facilitated diffusion
Net movement always from higher to lower concentrations (no energy required); carrier-mediated (i.e., glucose transporter, GLUT)
Active transport
Moves molecules against electrochemical gradient (energy required)
1) Primary Active Transport: use ATP
2) Secondary Active Transport: indirect energy
Primary active transport
1) Moves molecules against electrochemical gradient
2) Energy is used from ATP
3) Carrier-mediated
Sodium Potassium Pump
1) Sodium is pumped out of the cell against the concentration gradient
2) Potassium is pumped into the cell against the concentration gradient
3) 3 sodium ions exchanged with 2 potassium ions
Secondary active transport
1) Carrier-mediated (2 binding sites - one for Na+, the other for glucose or amino acid)
2) Sodium is moved down the concentration gradient
3) Glucose is moved against the concentration gradient (active transport)
4) Energy comes from Na+ concentration gradient (chemical energy)
Osmosis
Net diffusion of water across the cell membrane (water channel: aquaporin)
What is the result of osmosis?
“Osmotic pressure” in closed system
Osmolarity (Osm)
Concentration of osmotic particles of a solution
What are the effects of ECF osmolarity on cell volume?
1) Isotonic: maintain the volume
2) Hypotonic: increase the volume
3) Hypertonic: decrease the volume
What is the effect of adding solutes to pure water?
It decreases the water concentration; higher solution concentration = lower water concentration
What happens if the membrane is permeable to water and solute?
At equilibrium, both concentrations of chambers become identical
What happens if the membrane is permeable to only water?
1) Only water gets across the membrane due to water concentration differences
2) Net flux will be from left to right
3) Causes water pressure built up in right chamber
4) Mobile membrane will be pushed to the left
Epithelial Transport: Transcellular pathway
- Luminal (apical) membrane
- Basolateral membrane (near capillaries)
Epithelial Transport: Paracellular pathway
Through “space” between adjacent cells (not much due to a tight junction)
Epithelial cells are highly..
Polarized
e.g. epithelial transport of sodium ion, epithelial transport of organic solutes (glucose, amino acid)
** Apical and basolateral membranes have different channels and transporters
