1) Henry VII: Royal finances, local gov, regional gov, relations with the nobility Flashcards
Why did Henry change the govt?
Following the chaos of Wars of the Roses Henry wanted to restore the gov and enforce law and order.
- Royal power was restored and centralised so thoroughly that it developed into despotism in Henry VII’s later reign
Give historians view as Henry as a ‘New Monarch’
- Pollard (1914): Origin of New Monarchy shifted forward to Henry VII – organised, centralised, tightly controlled government, employing “new men” from gentry and professional classes; succeeded in suppressing overmighty subjects, lawlessness and disorder
- Gunn ((2016): Focus on “new men” rather than institutional “New Monarchy”
Argues Henry introduces a new way to rule different from Edward
Give historians view of Henry as a traditional monarch
- Elton (1950s): Restoration of monarchical power shifted forward to Henry VIII – “Revolution in government”, led by Thomas Cromwell
- Chrimes (1964): New Monarchy shifted back to Edward IV
- Thompson (1985): Many of Henry’s “innovations” based on Edward IV ‘s practice, although more successful
Argues that Henry is little different from Edward before him
Overall was Henry a ‘new monarch’?
Henry broadly a conventional medieval monarch, although working relationship with nobility arguably more strained than at any time since Magna Carta (1215).
Innovation mostly a question of degree rather than of type, including extent of king’s personal attention to detail
- Yorkist kings had used “new men”, although Henry’s reliance greater
- Henry’s use of bonds and recognisances increasingly oppressive and arbitrary
- Henry (eventually) adopted and extended Edward IV’s use of Chamber to administer finance
What were Henry’s aims for his central gov?
Control nobility
Maintain law and order
Restore royal finances
Who were the key figures in Henry’s government?
not includint the new men
Clerics:
- John Morton (d.1500) – Archbishop of Canterbury,1486-; Lord Chancellor, 1487-
- Richard Fox (d.1524) – Bishop of Winchester, 1501-; key advisor after Morton’s death
Lancastrian nobles:
* Jasper Tudor, Duke of Bedford (d.1495) – king’s uncle; ran Wales (fought for Henry in WoR)
* Earl of Oxford (d. 1513) – first military general (Bosworth, Stoke)
Yorkist nobles:
* Lord Stanley, Duke of Derby (d.1504) – king’s stepfather
* John de la Pole, Lord Lincoln (d.1487) – king’s cousin; backed Simnel
* Earl of Surrey (d.1524) – ran North until 1499
* Lord Dynham – Lord Treasurer 1486-150
Who were Henry’s ‘new men’?
- Lord Daubeney (d.1508) – former Yorkist; rare new peer in 1485, so king must have really rated him; second military general (Blackheath)
- Sir Reginald Bray (d.1503) - Chancellor of Duchy of Lancaster, 1485-; chief financial advisor
- Sir Thomas Lovell (d.1524) – Chancellor of Exchequer; Treasurer of Chamber to 1492
- Sir John Heron (d.1522) – Treasurer of the Chamber from 1492
- Sir Richard Empson (d.1509) – lawyer; led Council Learned from 1503
- Edmund Dudley (d.1509) – lawyer; assisted Empson on Council Learned
What was the change/ continuity of the King’s council under Henry?
- Henry developed the Yorkist use of regional councils in the north, Wales and Ireland
- The members of the northern council were closely watched by the Council in London and Henry ensured the members were appointed by him, not Surrey.
- Henry revived the Welsh Council in 1493.
- Sir Edward Poynings was appointed by Henry as his deputy of Ireland. But he failed to bring control and order so the Earl of Kildare was restored as Lord Deputy.
- Earl of Oxford was in the government of east Anglia, where most of his estates were located
- Earl of Shrewsbury and Northumberland had power in the north and Earl of Surrey served Henry in the same area.
- The duke of Bedford (his uncle Jasper Tudor) and the Stanleys had extensive regional power in Wales and the northwest
- But Margaret Beaufort was new. The Countess of Richmond was given enormous powers over the midlands.
- Little change within the King’s council.
Were Henry’s changes to the king’s council a success?
- There was not much change between these people as Henry trusted them and they did the job up to par.
- This also increased the loyalty of Henry’s subjects and strengthened his reign.
- Henry used his nobility the same way his predecessors had
- Great success with these members as Henry rewarded them with greater titles due to a long reign of service. e.g, Thomas Howard, Earl of Surrey was made Lord treasurer 1501 by Henry for his service.
What was the change/ continuity of the conciliar committees and courts under Henry?
conciliar- council meetings especially including clerical matters
- More extensive use of specialist courts and committees of the Council, eg. Court of Requests, Court of General Surveyors and especially **Council Learned **(set up by Bray, 1495, led by Empson and Dudley after 1503)
Were Henry’s changes to the conciliar committees and courts a success?
- Committees and courts improved efficiency of King’s Council
- However, increasing extortion by Council Learned possibly counter-productive, as it alienated increasing numbers of nobles and others.
What was the change/ continuity of the Great council under Henry?
- A traditional, informal medieval consultative body comprising nobility and key burgesses (town gentry)
- Henry VII called five sessions, usually to secure support for military action (e.g. during Breton Crisis, 1498-9), but died out after his reign
Were Henry’s changes to the Great council a success?
Not particulary influential, but also didn’t cause problems- useful tool to attempt to gain military support
What was the change/ continuity of the Parliament under Henry?
- Henry established a court of Requests, Court of General Surveyors, and the Council Learned in the Law. He developed the office of Justice and Peace, to combat over mighty subjects that ignored royal command.
- JPs’ (workhorses of the administration. Between 30-60 local landlords were appointed for each county. They were magistrates, responsible for enforcing royal proclamations) role widened significantly. For example they could grant bail and dispense justice and try criminals
- The Council differed little from the Yorkists’, as most were members of nobility or the church.
- Henry did not rely on particular families, but drew his chief advisors from lesser landowners, or professional classes (particularly lawyers). This saw the rise of men like Reginald Bray and Edmund Dudley.
- The most notable of changes was the establishment of committees
- Parliament only called 7 times during Henry’s reign and 5 during the first decade, usually used for funding and taxes. The problem with calling parliament for help was that parliament wanted a favour back, so as long as Henry didn’t run out of money he avoided calling parliament at all costs. Not very innovative
Were Henry’s changes to Parliament a success?
- The council learned in law was hated by many because of its links with bonds and recognisances, supervising their collection. In 1504 Empson and Dudley ensured that royal rights were thoroughly enforced causing even further resentment. And eventaully were executed by Henry VII
- The previous problems with the system of law had been lessened through Henry’s changes.
- Although the power of JPs increased they were still dependent on lower officials bringing criminals to them. And locals were often reluctant to act, in fear of becoming unpopular. Henry was reliant on the morality of his people to do the right thing
What conclusions can be drawn about Henry’s changes to central government?
Innovative?
Success?
Innovation?
* Henry used more ‘new men’ than his predecessors had, as his predecessors (Edward IV and Richard III were wealthy men who came from close knit noble families).
* Henry changed the way Parliament was led and gave more power to JPs
Success?
* Henry’s methods of utilising ‘new men’ was successful because Henry chose people he trusted to serve under him. However, it was unsuccessful because Henry could not supervise them all at once and feared that he would miss meetings and the orders given. Meaning he was left on the side-line of England’s goings on.
* JPs were reliant on the morality of his people, meaning that offenders often ran free. But most JPs carried out Henry’s wishes and as a result meant they were more loyal to Henry.
* Great council was a success because it forced key nobility to make decisions
* Parliament was very successful, but he didn’t call it very often. However every time he was granted tax by parliament there was a rebellion e.g Yorkshire and Cornish
Give an overview of Henry’s regional government
- Henry inherited model of regional government that relied on small number of very powerful local magnates, which had created instability from “overmighty subjects” (e.g. Warwick the Kingmaker) during Wars of the Roses
- In his early years, he continued to rely on magnates, using a mixture of moderate Yorkists (e.g. Stanley, Northumberland) former Lancastrian nobles (e.g. Jasper Tudor, Oxford, Devon) and the occasional new man (Daubeney)
- Regional councils introduced in Wales (1493), Ireland (1494) and the North (1499)
Regional gov: Who was in charge of the North East?
Important as it defended border with Scotland
Pre 1483:
* Richard, Duke of Gloucester
* Earl of Northumberland
After Yorkshire rising:
- Ealr of Surrey
Regional gov: Who was in charge of the North West?
Pre 1483:
* Thomas, Lord Stanley
Regional gov: Who was in charge of the Ireland?
Problem as it supported Yorkist claim to the throne
Ealr of Kildare
What was the change/ continuity of the role of JPs under Henry?
- Modest expansion of role, e.g. 1487 authority to take bail and 1495 to judge non-capital offences without juries
- Also concerned with local administration, e.g. at Quarter Sessions enquired into conduct of mayors and sheriffs
- In total 21 Acts related to JPs, but mostly focused on trying to enforce status quo
Were Henry’s changes to the JPs a success?
- 1489 Act rails against JPs’ corruption and negligence (exacerbated by lack of salary)
- Constables appointed by JPs unpopular and of limited effectiveness
- Very little evidence of enforcement of retaining laws
- Tudor England a “paradise for the criminal” (Elton), but widespread disorder rare
What was the change/ continuity of the role of nobels under Henry?
- JPs taking over business from manorial courts and noble-appointed sheriffs- tried to rely less heavily on nobels and more who was best for the job
- However, mixed picture. In some areas (e.g. Stanleys in North West), traditional magnate model survived
Were Henry’s changes to the nobels a success?
- In some areas, mistrust of regional nobles weakened local law and order e.g. Northern Marches; gentry factions in Warwickshire;
- Mistrust of the local liability was counterproductive (Henry mistrusted the locals, who controlled things like the armies, meaning that things took longer to get done)
What was Henry’s aim for his financial reforms?
Henry needed funds to raise armies, reward supporters and bribe opponents
What challenges did Henry face to his finances?
The King was expected to ‘live of his own’ in peacetime, but had:
- insufficient sources of revenue (after wars and decline in wool trade; principal tax – fifteenth and tenth – not uprated since 1330s)- also people reluctant to pay taxes as didn’t think they should help the king
- outdated medieval administration centred on Exchequer
- lack of personal financial experience
Ordinary revenue: what was the change/continuity to the Crown lands?
- Henry determined to bring back as much land as possible into Crown, the more land meant the more power
Some more efficient estate management, but increase mostly through increased landholdings:
* Act of Resumption 1486 (take back all land granted since 1455)
* Attainders (138, incl 9 nobles)
* 5x larger in the later years of Henry VII’s reign than Henry VI’s
* Land owned by Warwick ‘Kingmaker’ and by Dukes of Clarence and Gloucester all retained
What was the success/ failure of Henry’s reforms to the Crown lands?
- £3,000 > £42,000 pa (cf. Edward IV £10,000 pa)
- Fortunate that no large royal family as less people inherit from the same pot of money
Ordinary revenue: what was the change/continuity to the custom duties?
- Updated London Book of Rates, 1507 for inflation
What was the success/ failure of Henry’s reforms to the customs duties?
- **£33,000 > £40,000 pa **
(cf. Edward IV £70,000) - Limited growth due to smuggling and Burgundy embargo 1493-6
Ordinary revenue: what was the change/continuity to the feudal duties?
(wardship, livery, marriage, relief)
- Significant increase from enforcing traditional rights due to Henry appointing the Master of the King’s Wards
Wardship: Where the king took control of the estates of minores until they were of age, meaning the King would gain the profit.
Marriage: where the King could profit from arranged marriages of heirs and heiresses
* Katherine Dowager Duchess of Buckingham was fined £7000 in 1496 for marrying without the king’s licence
Livery: where King was paid for someone to recover land from wardship
Relief: where the king received money as land was inherited- inheritance tax
Escheats: payments made when land reverted to the crown
What was the success/ failure of Henry’s reforms to the feudal dues?
- Marriage and wardship income- £350 in 1487- £6000 in 1507
- However, created hostility from nobility
Ordinary revenue: what was the change/continuity to the profits of justice?
(issuing fees, fines)
Imposed fines (rather than prison) for most offences, e.g Cornish rebels fined £15,000 in 1497
* Sir William Stanley paid the crown £9000 in cash and £1000 per year after his 1495 treason
What was the success/ failure of Henry’s reforms to the profits of justice?
- Very likely increased, but no reliable annual figures
- Risked further unpopularity
Extraordinary revenue: what was the change/continuity to the Parliamentary grants of taxation?
(“fifteenth and tenth” & subsidy)
- As per previous kings, grants only requested for military operations - against Simnel (1487), France (1489), Scotland (1496)
- 1489 (only) was new-style subsidy – directly assessed landed income and value of moveable property
- Henry accused of stealing from nobles by some historians as he requested money for battles that didn’t happen
What was the success/ failure of Henry’s reforms to the parliamentary grants of taxation?
- Provoked rebellions in Yorkshire (1489) and Cornwall (1497)
- 1489 subsidy failed: granted £100,000; but only collected £27,000
- 1497: some lost tax recovered through fining Cornish £15,000
What was the success/ failure of Henry’s reforms to the loans?
- c.£203,000 total
- Little resistance, because Henry repaid promptly, as he was scared they would support a rival to the throne if he didn’t
What was the success/ failure of Henry’s reforms to the benevolences?
(forced loans, with no repayment)
- 1491: £48,500 for French war
- Paid by richest subjects without resistance, but cannot have been popular
Extraordinary revenue: what was the change/continuity to the clerical taxes?
- Supplemented by traditional abuses of ‘simony’ (selling clerical offices) and keeping bishoprics vacant (earning £6,000 p.a. by later reign)
Extraordinary revenue: what was the change/continuity to the feudal aid?
one-off feudal dues
- Henry made it so anyone with an income of over £40 was to be distraint of knighthood and meant that in a time of war they had to fight for the king.
What was the success/ failure of Henry’s reforms to the feudal aid?
- e.g. 1504: £30,000 for knighting of late Prince Arthur
- Little evidence of sums actually collected, or of any resistance
What was the success/ failure of Henry’s reforms to the French pension?
from Treaty of Etaples, 1492
- £159,000 paid in annual instalments of £5,000 by French king to remove English armies off of French soil
- Overall financial success, although had to repay 1492 campaign debts
Extraordinary revenue: what was the change/continuity to the bonds?
promise of good behaviour
- Recognisances recognised existing debts
- Traditional means of enforcing law and order
- Used as much for political control as much as revenue e.g. 1491 friends of Marquis of Dorset had to find £10,000 in bonds as guarantee of his behaviour
- Extent was new: 36 out of 62 noble families affected during reign, e.g. 1506, Lord Bergavenny (suspected during Cornish rebellion) fined £70,550 for retaining, later suspended in form of recognisance
- First decade of kingship 191 bonds were collected, rising to well over 200 in the later years
What was the success/ failure of Henry’s reforms of bonds?
- Recipients from bonds rose from 1493 £3,000 > 1505 **£35,000 **
- Total £220,000, but collected only £30,000
- Generated increasing anger from nobility
Expenditure: Was Henry a financial miser? And did he innovate England’s finances?
Historical reputation as a miser:
* Avoided foreign wars, except when directly threatened in 1492
* Limited patronage, e.g. nobility shrank from 57 to 43; use of Order of the Garter as cheaper (landless) alternative
However:
* Spent huge sums on foreign policy, court etc
- Funded 6,000 English troops to Brittany in 1489 (never reimbursed by Bretons, despite Treaty of Redon)
- Maximilian and Duke Philip received £342,000 between 1505-9
- Lavish celebration of Prince’s Arthur’s wedding to Catherine of Aragon, 1501(a years income)
- Great builder, e.g. Richmond Palace; Lady Chapel at Westminster Abbey
Was Henry’s changes to England’s finances successful?
Foreign policy
* Maintained Spanish alliance (despite arguments over Catherine’s dowry)
* Neutralised rebel foreign support, especially from Maximilian and Philip
BUT:
* Ultimately influence depended on ability to project military power, but unable to compete with France, Spain and HRE
Loyalty of nobility
- Limited numbers of noble rebels
- Retained support of Lord Stanley, Surrey and Lancastrians
BUT:
- Limited patronage probably a contributory factor in treachery of Audley and Suffolk
Towards end of reign, rumours that royal wards Buckingham and Northumberland discontented with royal control of their fortunes
How did Henry change/ keep the same for his financial administration?
Change
* Switch (back) to informal, flexible Chamber system from 1487; by late 1490s, dealt with all key income except customs duties and sheriffs’ accounts
* Henry’s attention to detail, e.g. personally signing off Heron’s Chamber accounts so no money was unaccounted for
* Council Learned in the Law: sub-committee of royal Council, introduced by Bray in 1495; run by Richard Empson after from 1503, assisted by Edmund Dudley; enforced bonds and recognisances with increasing arbitrariness
* Surveyor of the King’s Perogative: new role created in 1508 for Sir Edward Belknap, to enforce king’s feudal rights and collection of criminal fines
Continuity
* Exchequer: Lacking personal expertise, Henry initially reverted to pre-Edward IV system based on bureaucratic Exchequer (based permanently at Westminster)
Were Henry’s changes to the financial administration a success?
- Restored royal finances from the nadir of the Wars of the Roses
- Broadly successful in having what Dudley described as ‘many persons in his danger at his pleasure … bound to his grace in great sums of money’
BUT:
* Initial reversion to Exchequer model had to be abandoned in favour of the more flexible, informal Chamber system (based in royal household, moving with king) from 1487
* Personally signing off accounts not an inefficient use of royal time
* By the end, how far was he in control of Empson and Dudley
Overall conclusions about Henry’s financial policies
- Henry greatly increased the crown’s worth, allowing Henry VIII to rule a strong monarchy. Henry VII found new ways to increase the annual income of the crown which was greatly needed in order for him to not only stay on the throne but also for him to succeed in battle and as an enforcer of Law
- Henry had lots of tricky relationships with his nobles and those in power abroad. Henry was careful with his money to an extent which allowed him to have a decent bank to bribe foreign powers
- Henry changed a lot of what of previous kings had done to suit his priorities. This allowed Henry to excel in increasing the crown’s income far greater than any other king up to that point, earning him the title of the wealthiest English king
What was Henry’s aims for his relations with the nobility?
- Henry needed the nobility to defend against foreign troops
- Needed nobility to enforce law and order in the country
- Even if henry wanted to get rid of the nobility he couldn’t, so he had to contain their power without them revolting
What challenges did Henry face for relations with the nobility?
- Dynastic threat from surviving Yorkists e.g Warbeck
- Henry has only a limited network of friendly Lancastrian nobles: Jasper Tudor, Earl of Oxford, Margaret of Beaufort (married to Lord Stanley)
- Legacy of over mighty subjects- Earl of Warwick the Kingmaker
What oppurtunities did Henry have for relations with the nobility?
- A lot of the Yorkists had died in battle (e.g Richard III, Yorkist figurehead is dead), or are divided group because the Yorkists turn on each other
- Although there are not many Lancastrian nobles he does have a small cadre of committed and intelligent ‘new men’ like Sir Reginald Bray, Lord Daubeney, Thomas Lovell, and Edward Poynings
- A lot of over mighty subjects are dead: the Kingmaker, Norfolk. Most of the nobility are tired of war, since there had been war for 30 years
- Nobles just wanted to be noble, some didn’t even care who was king as long as they were able to be noble.
How did Henry reward within the loacl gov?
- Granted the overlordship of outlying areas of his kingdom to the greater magnates as a gesture of goodwill. Yorkist Henry Percy, Earl of Northumberland was released from captivity only a few weeks after Bosworth and was regranted the wardenship of the North of England.
How did Henry control the regional govt?
- Two victims of court politics were Thomas Grey and second Marquis of Dorset. And George Neville, Baron Bergavenny was the only nobleman to suffer the public disgrace of being tried, fined and imprisoned for illegal retaining.
How did Henry control land distribution?
financial
- Land that was given to the crown from extinct peerage families were not given away and kept by the crown, particularly the Great Estates acquired from extinct Yorkist families of Warwick, Clarence and Gloucester
How did Henry control bonds and recognisances?
Financial
- Sums of arrangements varied from £400 for an insignificant person to £10,000 for a peer
- Lord Dacre 1506 was forced to enter a bond of £2000 as proof of loyalty.
- 36/62 Nobel families were under financial blackmail by Henry
- Bishop of Worcester had to promise to pay £2000 for his loyalty and promise to never leave England
- Edward IV’s stepson, Marquis of Dorset was the most notable. Henry believed he had implication in the Simnel plot and his friends signed bonds for £10,000 to promise good behaviour
How did Henry control feudal obligations?
financial
- Henry controlled the noble marriages as to prevent leading magnates joining with heiresses to create a dangerous power bloc
- When Katherine Woodville married her third husband, Sir Richard Wingfield without royal licence. Henry imposed a £2000 fine
- Henry kept over mighty subjects the Percy earls of Northumberland and the Stafford dukes of Buckingham under surveillance
- In 1506 Henry fined Bishop Stanley, his stepbrother, a sum of £245,680 for illegally retaining (employing servants)
How did Henry reward the nobility through titles and other honours?
Social
Titles and other honours
* Only 3 of the new peerages were accompanied by grants of land
* 37 of Henry’s closest followers received the Order of the Garter in his reign, including Sir William Stanley and Sir Rhys ap Thomas
* Jasper Tudor was elevated from Earl of Pembroke to Duke of Bedford in 1485
Attainders
* Thomas Howard a Yorkist, earl of Surrey was attainted after Bosworth along with his father, previous Duke of Norfolk. 1489 Henry released them and put him in charge of maintaining law and order in the north as he had impressed the king by turning down an escape plot. The attainder was revoked and his title restored, Henry only returned some of his lands.
* After his success in the Yorkshire rebellion Surrey was given back more, but not all the Howard estates. He was also denied his father’s title. In 1513 Henry VIII awarded Surrey dukedom.
How did Henry control the nobility through titles and other honours?
Social
Titles and other honours
* Henry limited the number of new lords he created to keep the peerage small. As a limited noble class was easier to control. Also, it limited the amount of money Henry had to give away to the nobles. Henry only had 3 new Earls; Thomas Lord Stanley (his stepfather), Philibert de Chandee (captained his mercenary troops at Bosworth), and Sir Edward Courtenay (who became Earl of Devon).
* Henry only created 1 marquis, 1 viscount, and 8 barons through the remainder of his reign
* Rarely inflated anyone to the upper-class levels, was seen as very special
* Peerage shrank from 62 in 1485 to 42 in 1509
* The beneficiaries of henry’s generosity were simply valuable servants of the Tudor govt, and not necessarily nobles
* Jasper tudor, the duke of Bedford, the earl of Oxford and George Talbot, Earl of Shrewsberry were peers of Henry
* Edmund Dudley did not become a peer
How did Henry control the nobility through retaining?
Military
- where lords recruited lower social status as their followers
- In 1487 Henry forced members of both houses of Parliament to swear that they would not retain illegally
- Only licensed retainers were permitted in the Act of 1487. Strict limits placed on the number of retinue each nobleman could have
- The size of a noblemans retinue was determined by his status: a duke could retain 120 servants, and an earl only 80.
- 1504 a much stricter legislation was laid down, men could employ retainers for the king’s service alone.
- There was a reduction in the numbers of retainers and magnates maintained. But individual nobles like the Duke of Buckingham and the Earl of Northumberland show they could have got around it by employing more state officers than necessary.
- Nobles who did break the law and were found out were punished. 1506 Lord Bergavenny was fined £5 per month per retainer amounting to £70,550 (extreme case)
- Henry did not eliminate the practice but controlled it to a far greater extent than his predecessors and prevented it from becoming a significant problem
