1 BERNARDO - Theories of Global Politics

Question 1

Balance of power

Answer 1

The balance of power is a core concept in international relations that suggests states can secure their survival by preventing any one state from gaining enough military and political power to dominate all others.

Question 2

Classical realism

Answer 2

A form of realism that explains power politics largely in terms of human selfishness or egoism

Question 3

Defensive realism

Answer 3

A form of structural realism that views states as ‘security maximizers’, placing the desire to avoid attack above a bid for world power

Question 4

Democratization

Answer 4

The transition from authoritarianism to liberal democracy, reflected in the granting of basic freedoms and political rights, the establishment of competitive elections and the introduction of market reforms.

Question 5

Egoism

Answer 5

Concern for one’s own interest or wellbeing, or selfishness; the belief that one’s own interests are morally superior to those of others.

Question 6

For Waltz (see p. 60), theories about international politics could be developed on ‘three levels of analysis

Answer 6

the human individual, the state, and the international system

Question 7

For realists, global politics is, first and last, about

Answer 7

power and self-interest

Question 8

Global politics is often portrayed as ________ model of international politics

Answer 8

“power politics”

Question 9

Hobbes’s thinking was also based on a pessimistic view of human nature. What did he argue?

Answer 9

He argued that humans are driven by non-rational appetites: aversions, fears, hopes and desires, the strongest of which is the desire for ‘power after power’

Question 10

How did such thinking shape the understanding of international politics? (Referring to the views of Machiavelli and Hobbes)

Answer 10

International “state of nature”, state-centric view, and international politics. Expound on each.

Question 11

Idealism

Answer 11

(sometimes called ‘utopianism’) is an approach to international politics that stresses the importance of moral values and ideals, rather than power and the pursuit of the national interest, as a guide to foreign policy-making.

Question 12

Machiavelli’s theory of politics was based on a darkly negative model of a changeless human nature.

Answer 12

In his view, humans are ‘insatiable, arrogant, crafty and shifting, and above all malignant, iniquitous, violent and savage’. On this basis, Machiavelli argued that political life is always characterized by inevitable strife, encouraging political leaders to rule through the use of cunning, cruelty and manipulation.

Question 13

Morgenthau (1948) similarly placed an emphasis on the ‘art of statecraft’, arguing that the practical conduct of politics should nevertheless be informed by the ‘six principles of political realism’, spelled out as follows:

Answer 13

Politics is governed by objective laws which have their root in human nature.

The key to understanding international politics is the concept of interest defined in terms of power.

The forms and nature of state power will vary in time, place and context but the concept of interest remains consistent.

Universal moral principles do not guide state behaviour, although this does not rule out an awareness of the moral significance of political action.

Moral aspirations are specific to a particular nation; there is no universally agreed set of moral principles.

The political sphere is autonomous, meaning that the key question in international politics is ‘How does this policy affect the power of the nation?’

Question 14

National interest

Answer 14

Foreign policy goals, objectives or policy preferences that supposedly benefit a society as a whole (the foreign policy equivalent of the ‘public interest’) (see p. 130).

Question 15

Neoliberalism

Answer 15

A perspective on international politics that remodelled liberalism in the light of the challenge of realism, particularly neorealism; it emphasizes the scope for cooperative behaviour within the international system while not denying its anarchic character

Question 15

Neorealism

Answer 15

A perspective on international politics that modifies the power politics model by highlighting the structural constraints of the international system; sometimes called ‘new’ or structural realism.

Question 15

Neorealists argue that international anarchy necessarily tends towards tension, conflict and the unavoidable possibility of war for three main reasons:

Answer 15

Self-help, the Security Dilemma, and relative gains

Question 16

Offensive realism

Answer 16

A form of structural realism that portrays states as ‘power maximizers’, as there is no limit to their desire to control the international environment

Question 17

Polarity

Answer 17

The existence within a system of one or more significant actors, or ‘poles’, which affect the behaviour of other actors and shape the contour of the system itself, determining its structural dynamics

Question 17

Realism

Answer 17

(sometimes called ‘political realism’) claims to offer an account of world affairs that is ‘realistic’, in the sense that it is hard-headed and (as realists sees it) devoid of wishful thinking and deluded moralizing.

Question 17

Relative gains

Answer 17

The position of states in relation to one another, reflected in the distribution of benefits and capabilities between and amongst them (see p. 436).

Question 18

Security dilemma

Answer 18

The dilemma that arises from the fact that a build-up of military capacity for defensive reasons by one state is always liable to be interpreted as aggressive by other states (see p. 19)

Question 19

Self-help

Answer 19

A state’s reliance on its own capacities and resources, rather than external support, to ensure security and survival

Question 20

State of nature

Answer 20

A society devoid of political authority and of formal (legal) checks on the individual.

Question 21

Statecraft

Answer 21

The art of conducting public affairs, or the skills associated with it; statesmanship.

Question 22

Systems theory

Answer 22

An approach to study that focuses on works of ‘systems’, explaining their operation and development in terms of reciprocal interactions amongst component parts.

Question 23

The core theme of realist theory can therefore be summed up in the equation:

Answer 23

egoism plus anarchy equals power politics

Question 24

The key themes within liberal theory are as follows:

Answer 24

Interdepence liberalism, Republican liberalism, and Liberal Institutionalism

Question 25

The key themes within realism are as follows:

Answer 25

State egoism and conflict

Statecraft and the national interest

International anarchy and its implications

`Polarity, stability and the balance of power

Question 26

The theory of power politics is based on two core assumptions (Donnelly 2000):

Answer 26

People are essentially selfish and competitive, meaning that egoism is the defining characteristic of human nature.

The state-system operates in a context of international anarchy, in that there is no authority higher than the sovereign state.

Question 27

Two schools of thought of realism

Answer 27

Classical realism and neorealism

Question 28

What is the central them of liberalism in all its forms?

Answer 28

The notion of harmony or balance amongst competing interests. Individual, groups, and for that matter, states may pursue self-interest but a natural equilibrium will tend to assert itself.

Question 29

What is the defect of classical realism?

Answer 29

they couldn’t explain behavior at a level above state or in the international stage; limitation of any endogenous/ ‘inside-out’ theory (one which explains behavior in terms of ‘the inside’, the intentions or inclinations of key actors).

This is because classical realism is state-centric, and downplays the possibility of cooperation for mutual advancement, peace and stability.

Question 30

What was the result of the Paris Peace Conference?

Answer 30

The Treaty of Versailles (ans a series of treaties)

Question 31

What were the motivations behind the Treaty of Versailles and its series of treaties?

Answer 31

The first, articulated by Wilson and set out in his Fourteen Points (a peace programme announced in a speech to Congress in January 1918) was the desire to institute a new international order, achieved through a ‘just peace’ that would banish power politics for ever.

However, the other major motivation, expressed in particular by Clemenceau, was to punish Germany and strengthen French security. This led to the large-scale disarmament of Germany, the loss of German territory and the distribution of its colonies as ‘mandates’ to various Allied powers, and the imposition of the ‘war guilt’ clause.

Question 32

Why is realism portrayed as amoral?

Answer 32

It is both because of its image of humans as lustful and power-seeking creatures and because of its insistence that ethical considerations should be strictly excluded from foreign policy decision-making.

Question 33

Liberal theories about interdependence (see p. 8) are grounded in ideas about

Answer 33

trade and economic relations

Question 34

Commercial liberalism

Answer 34

A form of liberalism that
emphasizes the economic and
international benefits of free
trade, leading to mutual benefit
and general prosperity as well
as peace amongst states.

Question 35

Free trade has economic benefits, as it allows each country to specialize in
the production of the goods and services that it is best suited to produce, the
ones in which they have a ‘comparative advantage’. However, what is another reason why it is important?

Answer 35

Free trade is no less
important in drawing states into a web of economic interdependence that means that the material costs of international conflict are so great that warfare becomes virtually unthinkable. Cobden and Bright argued that free trade would draw
people of different races, creeds and languages together in what Cobden described as ‘the bonds of eternal peace’

Question 36

“Complex interdependence” developed by neoliberals was initially an alternative theoretical model to

Answer 36

realism

Question 37

What is complex interdependence?

Answer 37

reflects the extent to which
peoples and governments in the modern world are affected by what happens
elsewhere, and particularly by the actions of their counterparts in other countries.

Question 38

High politics

Answer 38

Issue areas
that are of primary importance,
usually taken to refer to
defence and foreign policy
generally, and particularly to
matters of state self-preservation

Question 39

Low politics

Answer 39

Issue areas
that are seen not to involve a
state’s vital national interests,
whether in the foreign or the
domestic sphere.

Question 40

“Strong” liberals believe that…

Answer 40

qualitative changes have taken place in the international system which substantially modify the impact of anarchy, self-help and the security dilemma, creating an irresistible tendency towards peace, cooperation and integration (Burton
1972; Rosenau 1990). ‘

Question 41

“Weak” liberals have come to accept…

Answer 41

neorealist assumptions, particularly about the implications of international anarchy, as the starting point for analysis, thereby highlighting the extent to which modern realist and liberal theory sometime overlap (Axelrod 1984; Stein 1990).

Question 42

Internationalism

Answer 42

is the theory or practice of
politics based on
cooperation between
states or nations. It is
rooted in universalist
assumptions about
human nature that put it
at odds with political
nationalism, the latter
emphasizing the degree
to which political identity
is shaped by nationality

Question 43

Republican liberalism

Answer 43

A form of liberalism that
highlights the benefits of
republican (rather than
monarchical) government and,
in particular, emphasizes the link
between democracy and peace.

Question 44

Democratic peace thesis

Answer 44

The notion that there is an
intrinsic link between peace
and democracy, in particular
that democratic states do not
go to war with one another.

Question 45

In relation to the democratic peace thesis, what is Francis Fukuyama’s view?

Answer 45

The wider acceptance of liberal-democratic principles and structures, and the extension of market capitalism, amounted to the
‘end of history’ and also promised to create a more stable and peaceful global
order

Question 46

End of history

Answer 46

The end of history is a political and philosophical concept that supposes that a particular political, economic, or social system may develop that would constitute the end-point of humanity’s sociocultural evolution and the final form of human government.

Question 47

Liberal institutionalism

Answer 47

An approach to study that
emphasizes the role of
institutions (both formal and
informal) in the realization of
liberal principles and goals.

Question 48

Rule of law

Answer 48

The principle that law should ‘rule’ in the sense that it establishes a
framework within which all
conduct and behaviour takes
place

Question 49

Absolute gains

Answer 49

Benefits that accrue to states from a policy or action regardless of
their impact on other states
(see p. 436).

Question 50

Post-positivism

Answer 50

An approach to knowledge that
questions the idea of an
‘objective’ reality, emphasizing
instead the extent to which
people conceive, or ‘construct’;
the world in which they live.

Question 51

What are the mainstream theories?

Answer 51

Liberalism and Realism

Question 52

What are the key critical perspectives?

Answer 52

Marxism, neo-Marxism, and critical theory

Social constructivism

Poststructuralism

Feminism

Green politics

Postcolonialism

Question 53

Marxism encompasses two contrasting tendencies

Answer 53

gives primary attention to economic analysis, and is mainly concerned with exposing capitalism as a system of class oppression that operates on national and international levels

places greater emphasis on the ideological and cultural dimension of oppression, and has come to embrace a post-positivist, and therefore post-Marxist, mode of
theorizing.

Question 54

Neo-Marxism

Answer 54

An updated
and revived form of Marxism
that rejects determinism, the
primacy of economics and the
privileged status of the
proletariat

Question 55

Uneven development

Answer 55

The tendency within a capitalist
economy for industries,
economic sectors and countries
to develop at very different
rates due to the pressures
generated by the quest for
profit, competition and
economic exploitation.

Question 56

Dependency theory

Answer 56

A neo-Marxist theory that
highlights structural imbalances
within international capitalism
that impose dependency and
underdevelopment on poorer
states and regions

Question 57

What is the core philosphy of Marxism?

Answer 57

The core of Marxism is a philosophy of history that outlines why capitalism is doomed and why socialism and eventually communism are destined to replace
it.

Question 58

What is Marxism?

Answer 58

Marxism is a social theory centered on the ongoing struggle between various groups, primarily divided by class differences in wealth and power. It asserts that this inequality sparks conflict between the ruling class (bourgeoisie) and the working class (proletariat), ultimately driving historical change towards a more equitable society. Marxists advocate for collective ownership of resources and production means to achieve fairness and justice in society.

Question 59

The world-system consists
of interrelationships between

Answer 59

the ‘core’, the ‘periphery’ and the ‘semi-periphery’.

Question 60

In the world-systems theory, what does ‘core’ mean?

Answer 60

Core areas such as the developed North are distinguished by the concentration of capital, high wages and high-skilled manufacturing production They therefore benefit from technological innovation and high and sustained levels of investment.

Question 61

In the world-systems theory, what does ‘periphery’ mean?

Answer 61

Peripheral areas such as the less developed South are exploited by
the core through their dependency on the export of raw materials, subsistence wages and weak frameworks of state protection

Question 62

In the world-systems theory, what does ‘semi-periphery’ mean?

Answer 62

Semi-peripheral areas are
economically subordinate to the core but in turn take advantage of the periphery, thereby constituting a buffer between the core and the periphery. Such thinking about the inherent inequalities and injustices of global capitalism was one of the influences on the anti-globalization, or ‘anti-capitalist’, movement that emerged from the late 1990s onwards

Question 63

Hegemony

Answer 63

The ascendancy
or domination of one element
of a system over others; for
Marxists, hegemony implies
ideological domination

Question 64

What is the defining theme of critical theory?

Answer 64

It’s an attempt to extend the notion of critique to all social practices by linking substantive social research to philosophy.

Question 65

Cox and Andrew Linklater applied critical theory to international politics in 3 ways. Enumerate each.

Answer 65

1. Underlines the linkage between knowledge and politics and the adoption of theoretical reflexivity.
2. Critical theorists have adopted an explicit commitment to emancipatory politics
3. Critical theorists have questioned the conventional association within international theory between political community and the state and opened the possibility to a more inclusive notion of political identity

Question 66

Theoretical reflexivity

Answer 66

An awareness of the impact of the
values and presuppositions that
a theorist brings to analysis, as
well as an understanding of the
historical dynamics that have
helped to fashion them

Question 67

In the final analysis of social constructivism, what is the main idea?

Answer 67

People, whether acting as individuals or as social groups, ‘construct’ the world in which
they live and act according to those constructions. People’s beliefs and assumptions become particularly significant when they are widely shared, especially when they serve to give a community or people a sense of identity and distinctive interests.

Constructivism stands, in a sense, between ‘inside-out’ and ‘outside-in’ approaches, in that it holds that interactions between agents and structures are always mediated by ‘ideational factors’ (beliefs, values, theories and assumptions)

Question 68

What is the pessimistic and optimistic implications of the constructivist analysis which highlights the fluidity of world politics? That as nation-states and other key global actors change their perception of who or what
they are, their behaviour will change.

Answer 68

On the one hand, it leaves open the possibility that states may transcend a narrow perception of self-interest and embrace the cause
of global justice, even cosmopolitanism.

On the other hand, it highlights the
possibility that states and other international actors may fall prey to expansionist and aggressive political creeds.

Question 69

postmodernism

Answer 69

An intellectual tradition that is
based on the belief that truth is
always contested and plural;
sometimes summed up as ‘an
incredulity towards
metanarratives

Question 70

Deconstruction

Answer 70

A close reading of philosophical or
other texts with an eye to their
various blindspots and/or
contradictions

Question 71

What are empirical feminists?

Answer 71

They challenge the “sexist” exclusion of women and their issues from traditional analysis of international politics.

Question 72

Feminists contend that the theory of power politics is built on…

Answer 72

‘masculinist’ notions of rivalry, competition, and inevitable conflict, stemming from viewing the world through interactions among power-seeking autonomous actors.

Question 73

Analytical feminists

Answer 73

is concerned not only to expose such biases, but also to champion alternative concepts and theories, for example ones linking power not
to conflict but to collaboration.

Question 74

Mainstream/reformist green thinking

Answer 74

develop balance between modernization and economic growth, and the need to tackle environmental degradation; the key theme is sustainable development

Question 75

Radical green theorists

Answer 75

argue for the balance between humankind and nature will only be restored by radical social change

Question 76

Eco-socialist

Answer 76

argues that environmental crisis is due to capitalist economic system which commodified nature and draws it into system of market exchange

Question 77

Eco-anarchist

Answer 77

advance an environmental critique of hierarchy and authority, arguing that domination over other people is linked to domination over nature

Question 78

Eco-feminism

Answer 78

environmental critique of male power, domination over women leads to domination over nature

Question 79

Deep ecologist

Answer 79

argues that only paradigm change will end environmental degradation.
Embracing a profoundly different philosophical and moral outlook rooted in radical holism rather than traditional mechanistic and atomistic views will halt environmental degradation.

Question 80

Eurocentrism

Answer 80

The application of values and
theories drawn from European
culture to other groups and
peoples, implying a biased or
distorted viewpoint.

Question 81

Postcolonial theorists aim to reveal the…

Answer 81

cultural aspects of colonial domination by validating non-western and sometimes anti-western ideas and cultures