1 Flashcards
0
Q
Which muscle group does the somatic nervous system control?
A
Voluntary
1
Q
Which neurotransmitter does somatic afferents use?
A
Glutamate
2
Q
What are the 3 divisions of the autonomic nervous system?
A
Enteric, sympathetic, parasympathetic
3
Q
Where are afferents cell bodies?
A
PNS
4
Q
What is a collection of neurones in the CNS called?
A
Tract
5
Q
Which autonomic division has branched post ganglions?
A
Sympathetic
6
Q
Where is noradrenaline used as a neurotransmitter?
A
Post ganglionic sympathetic
7
Q
What cells myelinate the CNS?
A
Oligodendrite
8
Q
What are satellite glia?
A
Astrocytes in the sensory ganglia
9
Q
What are the hindbrain components?
A
Pons, medulla oblongata, cerebellum
10
Q
Where is the reticular formation?
A
Medulla oblongata/midbrain - hindbrain
11
Q
What does the raphe nuclei contain?
A
5HT cells
12
Q
The midbrain components are?
A
Substantia niagra, superior colliculus, periaqueductal grey matter, red nucleus
13
Q
Where is the brain fluid made?
A
Choroid plexus
14
Q
Afferents enter the spinal cord?
A
Dorsal horn
15
Q
Which part of the brain is represented by the homunculus man
A
The post central gyrus in the somatosensory cortex
16
Q
Which mengines contains the spinal fluid?
A
Arachnoid mater
17
Q
What contributes to the resting potential?
A
K and Na ions, negatively charged proteins, pump
18
Q
How can ion channels be opened?
A
Ligand, mechanical, voltage
19
Q
Which equations calculate membrane potential?
A
Nernst equation, but leaks accounted for by Goldman Hodgkin Katz
20
Q
Why are action potentials generated by the axon hillock?
A
High Na+ ion channel
21
Q
What are the six types of brain preparations?
A
Single cell, slices, in vitro, intact nerve, invertebrate, in vivo
22
Q
Which 2 techniques can be used to observe current changes in neurones?
A
Patch and 2 electrode
23
Q
What are oocytes used for?
A
Synthesis exogenous mRNA to observe mutation
24
What is the restriction of 2 electrode clamp?
Mammal cells too small
25
What thickness are microtome slices for light microscopy?
10-200um
26
What is nissl stain used for?
Stains DNA and rER to show cytoarchitecture but without staining dendrites and axons
27
What does the nauta silver stain detect?
Degenerating axons
28
Which direction is anterograde axoplasmic flow?
To terminal
29
Gap junctions are regulated by?
Ca, pH, neurotransmitters
30
Electrical synapses use which proteins?
Gap junctions across a 3.5nm gap, with cytoplasmic continuity
31
Which snare proteins are used in neurotransmitter release?
Synaptobrevin, SNAP25, Synaptotagmin
32
Which is an mepp?
Miniature end plate potential
33
What is the excitatory brain neurotransmitter?
Glutamate
34
Which 5 compounds are catecholamines?
Serotonin, histamine, noradrenaline, adrenaline, dopamine
35
When are peptides released as neurotransmitter?
Co released in high frequency stimulation
36
What does substance p potentiate?
Pain
37
What is the structure of AMPA glu receptors?
Ionotropic, tetrameric, 2R2 replaced with R1 for calcium influx in ltp
38
When are NMDA glu receptors activated?
High frequency stimulation, depolarisation releases magnesium.
39
Serotonin and glycine have ___meric receptors?
Pentameric
40
Which compounds are allosteric activators of GABAa receptors?
Benzodiazepines, barbiturates, steroids
41
Axo-dendritic synapses are generally __?
Excitatory
42
How are axo-axoplasmic synapses modulatory?
Control calcium influx to facilitate or inhibit response
43
Where do multiple PSPs converge?
Axon hillock
44
Temporal summation involves how many synapses?
One
45
Somatosensory system responds to which environment?
External
46
Peripheral innervation uses which nervous system?
Somatic
47
Nociceptors can be?
Mechanical, chemical, thermal or poly modal
48
The skin detects what type of touch?
Innocus
49
Which touch receptors detect low frequency vibration?
Merkel's discs and meissener's corpuscles
50
Ruffini corpuscles contain axons with which protein?
Collagen
51
Touch receptors use which type of axons?
Abeta
52
Outline the touch axon pathway
Primary passes through dorsal horn, anterolaterally to the brainstem. Second axon through the reticular formation to the thalamus. Third axon to the somatosensory cortex.
53
Where is the somatosensory cortex?
Post central gyrus
54
Which pathway do pain afferents pass to the brain?
Adelta and un myelinated c axons
55
Primary pain afferents synapse ____ and use ___ neurotransmitter
Dorsal horn, glutamate
56
What is the direct vision pathway
Photoreceptors- bipolar cells- ganglion cells
57
Outline the retino fugal projection
Optic nerve - chiasm - laterogeniculate nucelus in thalamus - primary visual cortex
58
The macula contains which type of photoreceptors?
Rods for achromatic light
59
What modules make up the primary visual cortex?
Cortical
60
In what way is endolymph fluid in the cochlea exceptional?
High potassium concentration for depolarisation
61
When are photoreceptors activated?
In dark, GPCRs produce cGMP to open Na channels to release neurotransmitter
62
What is the organ of corti?
The hairs on the basilar membrane of the scala media, which are distorted by the tectoral membrane
63
Where is the auditory cortex?
Superior temporal gyrus
64
Where does the olfactory tract/bulb project?
Pyriform cortex in temporal lobe then orbitofrontal cortex and thalamus
65
Which structures are involved in taste?
Tongue, pharynx, palate, epiglottis
66
What are the taste structures?
Papillae containing taste beds
67
Dissolved food directly activates ____ receptors?
Metabotropic, causing action potential
68
Taste cells do/do not have axons?
Don't- neurotransmitter acts on nearby axons which project to medulla, then thalamus, then gustatory cortex
69
Indirect hypothalamus pathway through which area of pituitary?
Parvosecretory cells via the anterior pituitary
70
Which autonomic branch innervates the bladder?
Parasympathetic
71
Sympathetic innervation of the adrenal glands is exceptional for what reason?
Long preganglions
72
How is the enteric branch of the autonomic nervous system regulated?
Some sympathetic and parasympathetic, mostly self regulating from by myenteric plexus
73
Most parasympathetic nerves project from which region of the spinal cord?
Basalar
74
The autonomic nervous system and the baroreflex are controlled by?
The nucleus of the saltatory tract in the brainstem
75
Carcadian rhythms are maintained by?
The superchiasmatic nucleus in the hypothalamus
76
How is melatonin released?
Photoreceptor input to the superchiasmatic nucleus then through the intermediolateral cell column to the superior cervical ganglion in the sympathetic chain. The pineal gland is stimulated
77
How is alertness controlled?
Ascending reticular activating system uses catecholamines through thalamo-cortical projections
78
Non REM sleep phases have brainwaves with decreasing ___ and increasing ___
Frequency, amplitude
79
What is a sleep spindle?
A random flutter of brain activity
80
What is the brainwave type in REM sleep?
Beta
81
What three components make up memory?
Encoding, storage and retrieval
82
Which brain regions are involved in short term memory?
Visuospatial sketchpad for immediate storage, in the right occipital lobe
Phonological loop in the parietal supramarginal gyrus for encoding
83
What time of memory are flashbulb memories?
Declarative
84
Where are declarative memories formed?
Hippocampus, mammillary gland, Rhinal cortex, thalamus
85
Where are declarative memories stored?
Neocortex, particular dorso and anterolateral frontal cortices
86
Non associative memory is what type?
Long term non declarative for motor control
87
Which brain regions does non declarative memory involve?
Basal ganglia, prefrontal cortex, amygdala, cerebellum, sensory association cortex
88
Retrograde amnesia has problems with?
Retrieval of memory
89
Outline synaptic plasticity
Potentiation in hippocampus (declarative) and depression in cerebellum (non declarative) produces memory
90
Where does cognition occur?
Frontal, parietal and temporal association vortices
91
What are the inputs into the association cortices for cognitive function?
Ipsilateral, interhemispheric cortico-cortical projections
Preprocessed input from thalamus
Subcortical input from NA/dop/5HT neurones
92
What is attention?
Selective processing of simultaneous sensory inputs
| Involving preferential differentiation, shifting and subject to external influence
93
What are the components of emotion?
Evaluation of input, experience of feeling and expression of response
94
Which brain regions are involved in emotion?
Limbic system, orbitofrontal cortex, amygdala
95
What are the 6 universal emotions?
Fear, surprise, joy, anger, disgust, sadness
96
How is emotional response expressed?
Behavioural, hormonal, autonomic
97
What is an aphasia?
Speech/language disorder caused by damage to the brain without direct damage to sensory or motor areas
98
What is conduction aphasia?
Inability to repeat- no link between speech and language
99
Executive control is involved in which processes?
Decision making and reasoning
100
What do the prefrontal cortices control?
Executive control
Dorsolateral- initiation, shifting, inhibition, and stimulating consequences of behaviour
Ventromedial - social appropriateness, sensitivity to consequences of behaviour
101
Where do motoneurones synapss?
Motopool in the ventral horn
102
Which motoneurones fire first?
Type 1- low threshold
103
What do muscle spindles detect?
Changes in the length of parallel muscle fibres
104
Muscle spindles have what time of afferent neurones?
1a
105
What type of motoneurones innervate the motor unit?
Extrafusal fibres- alpha
| Intrafusal spindles - gamma
106
What are Golgi tendon organs used for?
Proprioception
107
How do somatic reflex pathways act?
Antagonist muscle pairs activated by afferents and motoneurones
108
Monosynaptic reflex pathway has which kind of afferent and ____ the origin muscle?
1a afferent from spindles to excite origin and inhibit antagonist
109
The Golgi tendon organ reflex uses which type of motoneurone to inhibit?
1b, origin
110
Recurrent inhibition as part of somatic reflex pathways involves which cells?
Renshaw cells and phasic fibres
111
What does the motor cortex do?
Planning of movement via corticobulbar and corticospinal tracts to the spinal cord
112
Which brain region is mostly effected by Alzheimer's?
Hippocampus, general widening of gyri, language and ventricles
113
Which projections are effected by the loss of substantia niagra in Parkinson's?
Dopaminergic projections to Corpus striatum, thalamus, motor cortex
114
What are the 4 types of MS progression?
Progressive-relapse
primary progressive
secondary progressive
Relapse-remission
115
Which neurones are lost in Huntington's disease?
GABAergic and cholinergic neurones
116
Schizophrenia is caused by increased ___ activity?
Dopaminergic
117
Bipolar disorder has effects on which neurotransmitters?
Serotonin, dopamine, glutamate
118
Positive schizophrenic symptoms are caused by an ____ in the mesolimbic pathway
Increase
119
A decrease in dopamine activity in the mesocortical pathway causes what type of schizophrenia?
Negative
120
What is the cause of depression?
Biogenic amine hypothesis- In particular decrease in serotonin and noradrenaline
