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Biology of the Mind > 1 > Flashcards

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0
Q

Which muscle group does the somatic nervous system control?

A

Voluntary

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1
Q

Which neurotransmitter does somatic afferents use?

A

Glutamate

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2
Q

What are the 3 divisions of the autonomic nervous system?

A

Enteric, sympathetic, parasympathetic

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3
Q

Where are afferents cell bodies?

A

PNS

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4
Q

What is a collection of neurones in the CNS called?

A

Tract

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5
Q

Which autonomic division has branched post ganglions?

A

Sympathetic

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6
Q

Where is noradrenaline used as a neurotransmitter?

A

Post ganglionic sympathetic

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7
Q

What cells myelinate the CNS?

A

Oligodendrite

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8
Q

What are satellite glia?

A

Astrocytes in the sensory ganglia

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9
Q

What are the hindbrain components?

A

Pons, medulla oblongata, cerebellum

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10
Q

Where is the reticular formation?

A

Medulla oblongata/midbrain - hindbrain

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11
Q

What does the raphe nuclei contain?

A

5HT cells

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12
Q

The midbrain components are?

A

Substantia niagra, superior colliculus, periaqueductal grey matter, red nucleus

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13
Q

Where is the brain fluid made?

A

Choroid plexus

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14
Q

Afferents enter the spinal cord?

A

Dorsal horn

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15
Q

Which part of the brain is represented by the homunculus man

A

The post central gyrus in the somatosensory cortex

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16
Q

Which mengines contains the spinal fluid?

A

Arachnoid mater

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17
Q

What contributes to the resting potential?

A

K and Na ions, negatively charged proteins, pump

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18
Q

How can ion channels be opened?

A

Ligand, mechanical, voltage

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19
Q

Which equations calculate membrane potential?

A

Nernst equation, but leaks accounted for by Goldman Hodgkin Katz

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20
Q

Why are action potentials generated by the axon hillock?

A

High Na+ ion channel

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21
Q

What are the six types of brain preparations?

A

Single cell, slices, in vitro, intact nerve, invertebrate, in vivo

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22
Q

Which 2 techniques can be used to observe current changes in neurones?

A

Patch and 2 electrode

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23
Q

What are oocytes used for?

A

Synthesis exogenous mRNA to observe mutation

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24
Q

What is the restriction of 2 electrode clamp?

A

Mammal cells too small

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25
Q

What thickness are microtome slices for light microscopy?

A

10-200um

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26
Q

What is nissl stain used for?

A

Stains DNA and rER to show cytoarchitecture but without staining dendrites and axons

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27
Q

What does the nauta silver stain detect?

A

Degenerating axons

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28
Q

Which direction is anterograde axoplasmic flow?

A

To terminal

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29
Q

Gap junctions are regulated by?

A

Ca, pH, neurotransmitters

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30
Q

Electrical synapses use which proteins?

A

Gap junctions across a 3.5nm gap, with cytoplasmic continuity

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31
Q

Which snare proteins are used in neurotransmitter release?

A

Synaptobrevin, SNAP25, Synaptotagmin

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32
Q

Which is an mepp?

A

Miniature end plate potential

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33
Q

What is the excitatory brain neurotransmitter?

A

Glutamate

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34
Q

Which 5 compounds are catecholamines?

A

Serotonin, histamine, noradrenaline, adrenaline, dopamine

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35
Q

When are peptides released as neurotransmitter?

A

Co released in high frequency stimulation

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36
Q

What does substance p potentiate?

A

Pain

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37
Q

What is the structure of AMPA glu receptors?

A

Ionotropic, tetrameric, 2R2 replaced with R1 for calcium influx in ltp

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38
Q

When are NMDA glu receptors activated?

A

High frequency stimulation, depolarisation releases magnesium.

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39
Q

Serotonin and glycine have ___meric receptors?

A

Pentameric

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40
Q

Which compounds are allosteric activators of GABAa receptors?

A

Benzodiazepines, barbiturates, steroids

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41
Q

Axo-dendritic synapses are generally __?

A

Excitatory

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42
Q

How are axo-axoplasmic synapses modulatory?

A

Control calcium influx to facilitate or inhibit response

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43
Q

Where do multiple PSPs converge?

A

Axon hillock

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44
Q

Temporal summation involves how many synapses?

A

One

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45
Q

Somatosensory system responds to which environment?

A

External

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46
Q

Peripheral innervation uses which nervous system?

A

Somatic

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47
Q

Nociceptors can be?

A

Mechanical, chemical, thermal or poly modal

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48
Q

The skin detects what type of touch?

A

Innocus

49
Q

Which touch receptors detect low frequency vibration?

A

Merkel’s discs and meissener’s corpuscles

50
Q

Ruffini corpuscles contain axons with which protein?

A

Collagen

51
Q

Touch receptors use which type of axons?

A

Abeta

52
Q

Outline the touch axon pathway

A

Primary passes through dorsal horn, anterolaterally to the brainstem. Second axon through the reticular formation to the thalamus. Third axon to the somatosensory cortex.

53
Q

Where is the somatosensory cortex?

A

Post central gyrus

54
Q

Which pathway do pain afferents pass to the brain?

A

Adelta and un myelinated c axons

55
Q

Primary pain afferents synapse ____ and use ___ neurotransmitter

A

Dorsal horn, glutamate

56
Q

What is the direct vision pathway

A

Photoreceptors- bipolar cells- ganglion cells

57
Q

Outline the retino fugal projection

A

Optic nerve - chiasm - laterogeniculate nucelus in thalamus - primary visual cortex

58
Q

The macula contains which type of photoreceptors?

A

Rods for achromatic light

59
Q

What modules make up the primary visual cortex?

A

Cortical

60
Q

In what way is endolymph fluid in the cochlea exceptional?

A

High potassium concentration for depolarisation

61
Q

When are photoreceptors activated?

A

In dark, GPCRs produce cGMP to open Na channels to release neurotransmitter

62
Q

What is the organ of corti?

A

The hairs on the basilar membrane of the scala media, which are distorted by the tectoral membrane

63
Q

Where is the auditory cortex?

A

Superior temporal gyrus

64
Q

Where does the olfactory tract/bulb project?

A

Pyriform cortex in temporal lobe then orbitofrontal cortex and thalamus

65
Q

Which structures are involved in taste?

A

Tongue, pharynx, palate, epiglottis

66
Q

What are the taste structures?

A

Papillae containing taste beds

67
Q

Dissolved food directly activates ____ receptors?

A

Metabotropic, causing action potential

68
Q

Taste cells do/do not have axons?

A

Don’t- neurotransmitter acts on nearby axons which project to medulla, then thalamus, then gustatory cortex

69
Q

Indirect hypothalamus pathway through which area of pituitary?

A

Parvosecretory cells via the anterior pituitary

70
Q

Which autonomic branch innervates the bladder?

A

Parasympathetic

71
Q

Sympathetic innervation of the adrenal glands is exceptional for what reason?

A

Long preganglions

72
Q

How is the enteric branch of the autonomic nervous system regulated?

A

Some sympathetic and parasympathetic, mostly self regulating from by myenteric plexus

73
Q

Most parasympathetic nerves project from which region of the spinal cord?

A

Basalar

74
Q

The autonomic nervous system and the baroreflex are controlled by?

A

The nucleus of the saltatory tract in the brainstem

75
Q

Carcadian rhythms are maintained by?

A

The superchiasmatic nucleus in the hypothalamus

76
Q

How is melatonin released?

A

Photoreceptor input to the superchiasmatic nucleus then through the intermediolateral cell column to the superior cervical ganglion in the sympathetic chain. The pineal gland is stimulated

77
Q

How is alertness controlled?

A

Ascending reticular activating system uses catecholamines through thalamo-cortical projections

78
Q

Non REM sleep phases have brainwaves with decreasing ___ and increasing ___

A

Frequency, amplitude

79
Q

What is a sleep spindle?

A

A random flutter of brain activity

80
Q

What is the brainwave type in REM sleep?

A

Beta

81
Q

What three components make up memory?

A

Encoding, storage and retrieval

82
Q

Which brain regions are involved in short term memory?

A

Visuospatial sketchpad for immediate storage, in the right occipital lobe
Phonological loop in the parietal supramarginal gyrus for encoding

83
Q

What time of memory are flashbulb memories?

A

Declarative

84
Q

Where are declarative memories formed?

A

Hippocampus, mammillary gland, Rhinal cortex, thalamus

85
Q

Where are declarative memories stored?

A

Neocortex, particular dorso and anterolateral frontal cortices

86
Q

Non associative memory is what type?

A

Long term non declarative for motor control

87
Q

Which brain regions does non declarative memory involve?

A

Basal ganglia, prefrontal cortex, amygdala, cerebellum, sensory association cortex

88
Q

Retrograde amnesia has problems with?

A

Retrieval of memory

89
Q

Outline synaptic plasticity

A

Potentiation in hippocampus (declarative) and depression in cerebellum (non declarative) produces memory

90
Q

Where does cognition occur?

A

Frontal, parietal and temporal association vortices

91
Q

What are the inputs into the association cortices for cognitive function?

A

Ipsilateral, interhemispheric cortico-cortical projections
Preprocessed input from thalamus
Subcortical input from NA/dop/5HT neurones

92
Q

What is attention?

A

Selective processing of simultaneous sensory inputs

Involving preferential differentiation, shifting and subject to external influence

93
Q

What are the components of emotion?

A

Evaluation of input, experience of feeling and expression of response

94
Q

Which brain regions are involved in emotion?

A

Limbic system, orbitofrontal cortex, amygdala

95
Q

What are the 6 universal emotions?

A

Fear, surprise, joy, anger, disgust, sadness

96
Q

How is emotional response expressed?

A

Behavioural, hormonal, autonomic

97
Q

What is an aphasia?

A

Speech/language disorder caused by damage to the brain without direct damage to sensory or motor areas

98
Q

What is conduction aphasia?

A

Inability to repeat- no link between speech and language

99
Q

Executive control is involved in which processes?

A

Decision making and reasoning

100
Q

What do the prefrontal cortices control?

A

Executive control
Dorsolateral- initiation, shifting, inhibition, and stimulating consequences of behaviour
Ventromedial - social appropriateness, sensitivity to consequences of behaviour

101
Q

Where do motoneurones synapss?

A

Motopool in the ventral horn

102
Q

Which motoneurones fire first?

A

Type 1- low threshold

103
Q

What do muscle spindles detect?

A

Changes in the length of parallel muscle fibres

104
Q

Muscle spindles have what time of afferent neurones?

A

1a

105
Q

What type of motoneurones innervate the motor unit?

A

Extrafusal fibres- alpha

Intrafusal spindles - gamma

106
Q

What are Golgi tendon organs used for?

A

Proprioception

107
Q

How do somatic reflex pathways act?

A

Antagonist muscle pairs activated by afferents and motoneurones

108
Q

Monosynaptic reflex pathway has which kind of afferent and ____ the origin muscle?

A

1a afferent from spindles to excite origin and inhibit antagonist

109
Q

The Golgi tendon organ reflex uses which type of motoneurone to inhibit?

A

1b, origin

110
Q

Recurrent inhibition as part of somatic reflex pathways involves which cells?

A

Renshaw cells and phasic fibres

111
Q

What does the motor cortex do?

A

Planning of movement via corticobulbar and corticospinal tracts to the spinal cord

112
Q

Which brain region is mostly effected by Alzheimer’s?

A

Hippocampus, general widening of gyri, language and ventricles

113
Q

Which projections are effected by the loss of substantia niagra in Parkinson’s?

A

Dopaminergic projections to Corpus striatum, thalamus, motor cortex

114
Q

What are the 4 types of MS progression?

A

Progressive-relapse
primary progressive
secondary progressive
Relapse-remission

115
Q

Which neurones are lost in Huntington’s disease?

A

GABAergic and cholinergic neurones

116
Q

Schizophrenia is caused by increased ___ activity?

A

Dopaminergic

117
Q

Bipolar disorder has effects on which neurotransmitters?

A

Serotonin, dopamine, glutamate

118
Q

Positive schizophrenic symptoms are caused by an ____ in the mesolimbic pathway

A

Increase

119
Q

A decrease in dopamine activity in the mesocortical pathway causes what type of schizophrenia?

A

Negative

120
Q

What is the cause of depression?

A

Biogenic amine hypothesis- In particular decrease in serotonin and noradrenaline

Biology of the Mind (1 decks)

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