1 Flashcards
1
Q
What factors increase flood risk on low lying and estuarine coastlines?
A
Height, degree of subsidence, vegetation removal
These factors contribute to the vulnerability of coastlines to flooding.
2
Q
How does sea level rise affect populations?
A
Affects a disproportionate number of people due to:
* Dense population in low lying coastlines
* Fertility of low lying deltas for agriculture
* Navigable access in estuaries and deltas for trade
* Support for megacities in river deltas
Examples of megacities include Shanghai, Dhaka, and Karachi.
3
Q
What does the IPCC predict for coastal populations by 2060?
A
12% of the world’s population will live in coastal regions less than 10 m above sea level
This prediction highlights the increasing risk of flooding in coastal areas.
4
Q
What is the height of low lying coastlines above sea level?
A
1-2 m high above (high tide) sea level
These heights put them at risk from flooding.
5
Q
What are the flood risks associated with low lying coastlines?
A
Temporary flood risk from storm surges, permanent flooding from global sea level rise
These risks are critical for planning and disaster management.
6
Q
What is the highest point in the Maldives?
A
2.3 m above sea level
The Maldives is particularly vulnerable due to its low elevation.
7
Q
What is the population of the Maldives?
A
340,000 spread across 1,200 islands
The population is concentrated in areas at risk of flooding.
8
Q
What is the main island and capital of the Maldives?
A
Malé
Malé is protected by a 3 m sea wall.
9
Q
What percentage of Bangladesh is less than 3 m high above sea level?
A
60%
Bangladesh’s elevation makes it highly susceptible to flooding.
10
Q
What is the maximum height above sea level on the island of Tarawa in Kiribati?
A
3 m
Tarawa is home to most of the Kiribati population.
11
Q
What causes natural subsidence in low lying coastlines?
A
Settling and compaction of recently deposited sediment
This process can exacerbate flooding risks.
12
Q
What is isostatic subsidence in deltas?
A
Periodic subsidence caused when the weight of delta sediment depresses the crust
This leads to marine transgression and flooding.
13
Q
What human activities can cause local subsidence?
A
Drainage of saturated sediment, water abstraction
These activities can worsen flooding conditions.
14
Q
What is subsidence?
A
Natural settling and compaction of recently deposited sediment.
15
Q
What areas are subject to natural subsidence?
A
Low lying coastlines in estuaries, deltas or outbuilding zones.
16
Q
How is subsidence usually countered?
A
By fresh deposition and bioaccretion of organic matter.
17
Q
What causes periodic isostatic subsidence in deltas?
A
The weight of delta sediment reaching a threshold that depresses the crust.
18
Q
What human activities can cause local subsidence?
A
- Drainage of saturated sediment/soil for agriculture
- Groundwater abstraction
- Weight of cities and built environments
19
Q
Give an example of an area affected by groundwater abstraction leading to subsidence.
A
Venice.
20
Q
What is the impact of land reclaimed from the sea on subsidence?
A
Subject to subsidence due to water abstraction via evapo-transpiration by agricultural crops.
21
Q
What is isostatic readjustment?
A
Adjustment of the Earth’s crust after ice sheet retreat.
22
Q
How much have large islands in Bangladesh’s Ganges-Brahmaputra delta subsided since 1960?
A
1.5 m.
23
Q
What are some causes of subsidence in Bangladesh?
A
- Isostatic crustal depression
- Water abstraction
- Natural settling of sediment
24
Q
How does vegetation affect flood risk?
A
Reduces flood risk by stabilizing sediment and absorbing wave energy.
25
What is the role of mangrove forests in sediment management?
Traps new sediment and raises land height above sea level.
26
What is the estimated impact of a 100 m belt of mangrove forest on wave height?
Reduces wave height by 40%.
27
How much of the world's mangrove forest has been removed since 1950?
50%.
28
What percentage of the mangrove forest loss is attributed to shrimp farm creation?
1/4.
29
Where is the largest mangrove forest in the world located?
Bangladesh, the Sundarbans.
30
What percentage of the Sundarbans is experiencing vegetation removal?
71%.
31
What is the erosion rate in some parts of the Sundarbans?
200 m per annum.
32
What is the primary consequence of global sea level rise?
Increased risk of flooding in low-lying coastlines
## Footnote
This is particularly critical for areas that are already vulnerable to flooding.
33
By how much did mean global sea level rise in the 1900?
20 cm
## Footnote
This rise has significant implications for coastal regions.
34
What percentage of the Netherlands is below sea level?
50%
## Footnote
The Netherlands relies on coastal defenses to protect these areas.
35
What is the predicted range of sea level rise by the year 2100 according to the IPCC?
18-59 cm
## Footnote
This prediction highlights the urgency of addressing climate change.
36
What would a 40 cm sea level rise mean for Bangladesh?
Permanent submersion of 11% of Bangladesh, creating 7-10 million environmental refugees
## Footnote
This represents a significant humanitarian crisis.
37
What would be the impact of a 50 cm sea level rise on the Maldives?
Permanent flooding of 77% of the Maldives' land area
## Footnote
This would severely affect the country's habitability and economy.
38
What is a storm surge?
A temporary rise in local sea level produced when a depression, storm or tropical cyclone reaches the coast.
## Footnote
Storm surges can lead to severe coastal flooding.
39
What atmospheric condition generates surface winds that spiral into the center of low pressure?
Depressions
## Footnote
Depressions are areas of low air pressure that occur in mid-latitudes, such as the UK.
40
What is the maximum wind speed of tropical cyclones classified as category 5 on the Saffir Simpson scale?
Over 250 km/h
## Footnote
Tropical cyclones are areas of very low surface air pressure generating very strong winds.
41
What happens to local sea level under high air pressure?
It depresses the ocean surface, lowering local sea level.
## Footnote
High air pressure affects sea level by pushing down on the water surface.
42
What is the relationship between air pressure reduction and sea level rise?
A 1 millibar reduction in air pressure leads to a 1 cm rise in sea level.
## Footnote
This relationship is significant during storm events.
43
List three factors that accentuate the rise in sea level during a storm surge.
* At high tide, particularly spring tide
* Shape of coastline funnels into increasingly narrow space
* Sea bed shallows towards coast
44
True or False: Storm surges can produce severe coastal flooding on high-lying coastlines.
False
## Footnote
Storm surges primarily affect low-lying coastlines.
45
What is the wind speed of storms in the UK?
90 kph
## Footnote
This is characteristic of storms that occur in mid-latitudes.
46
What impact can the onshore current of storm surge water have?
It can cause rapid coastal erosion.
## Footnote
The force of the current exacerbates the effects of storm surges.
47
Fill in the blank: Storms are areas of low surface pressure that generate strong winds, typically reaching speeds of _______ in tropical regions.
65 kph
48
What is the primary cause of severe coastal flooding during storm surges?
Large destructive waves whipped up by strong storm winds on top of the already higher sea level.
## Footnote
This combination increases the risk of flooding and erosion.
49
What are the short-term impacts of a cyclone?
Deaths and injuries from drowning or collapsing buildings, subsequent deaths from hypothermia and waterborne diseases, destruction of infrastructure, damaged utilities, destroyed homes, and destroyed businesses.
## Footnote
Additional impacts include loss of agricultural land and contamination, leading to crop harvest losses.
50
What immediate causes can lead to deaths following a cyclone?
Drowning, collapsing buildings, hypothermia, waterborne diseases, and natural causes due to cut transport routes to medical care.
## Footnote
Hypothermia can occur when homes are destroyed, and waterborne diseases can arise from destroyed sewer systems and freshwater pipes.
51
What types of infrastructure are typically destroyed during a cyclone?
Roads, railways, ports, airports, water pipes, electricity transmission lines, and sewage systems.
## Footnote
The destruction of these infrastructures can lead to a lack of power and water supply.
52
Why are older houses more vulnerable during cyclones?
They have worse building standards and are often located in poor areas or on marginal low-lying land.
## Footnote
Slums and shanty towns are particularly at risk due to their location and construction quality.
53
What was the category and storm surge height of Tropical Cyclone Sidr in 2007?
Category 4 cyclone with a storm surge of 6 m.
## Footnote
The cyclone had an air pressure of 944 mb and wind speeds of 240 km/h.
54
What geographic features contributed to the impact of Tropical Cyclone Sidr on Bangladesh?
The funnel shape of the Bay of Bengal, outflow from the Ganges and Brahmaputra rivers, intense rainfall, unconsolidated delta sediment, and deforestation of mangrove swamps.
## Footnote
These features exacerbated flooding and erosion.
55
What percentage of Bangladesh is low-lying and how high is it above sea level?
60% of Bangladesh is low-lying, less than 3 m above sea level.
## Footnote
This geographic vulnerability increases the risk of flooding during cyclones.
56
What were the human impacts of Tropical Cyclone Sidr in terms of casualties?
15,000 people killed and 55,000 injured.
## Footnote
In contrast, the 1970 Bhola Cyclone caused 300,000 deaths.
57
How many homes were destroyed during Tropical Cyclone Sidr?
1.6 million homes were destroyed.
## Footnote
The scale of destruction significantly impacted the recovery efforts.
58
What was the estimated total damage cost of Tropical Cyclone Sidr?
$1.7 billion.
## Footnote
This economic impact reflects the severe damage to infrastructure and homes.
59
What improvements contributed to the lower death toll in Tropical Cyclone Sidr compared to the 1970 Bhola Cyclone?
Improved warnings, embankments, and a cyclone shelter network.
## Footnote
These advancements in disaster preparedness and response saved many lives during Sidr.
60
Fill in the blank: The total damage from Tropical Cyclone Sidr was estimated at _______.
$1.7 billion.
61
True or False: The destruction of agricultural land is a long-term impact of cyclones.
True.
## Footnote
Contamination of agricultural land can lead to significant losses in crop production.
62
What were the wind speeds during Storm Xavier in December 2013?
80+ mph winds
63
What natural phenomenon coincided with Storm Xavier?
spring tide
64
How does the North Sea's coastline affect storm surges?
The coastline narrows into a funnel shape for a storm approaching from the north, which funnels the storm surge.
65
What was the average storm surge in East Anglia during Storm Xavier?
3 m
66
What was the maximum storm surge recorded at Blakeney in North Norfolk?
6 m
67
How many people were killed as a result of Storm Xavier?
2 people
68
How many people were evacuated due to Storm Xavier?
18,000 evacuated
69
Which areas experienced breached coastal defenses during Storm Xavier?
Yorkshire and Kent
70
How many homes were flooded as a result of Storm Xavier?
1,400 homes flooded
71
What happened to the sand dunes at Hemsby in Norfolk during Storm Xavier?
Erosion occurred, destroying seven houses and a lifeboat station.
72
How long were East Coast rail services suspended due to Storm Xavier?
for one day
73
What was the estimated total economic loss from Storm Xavier?
$100 million
74
How did the impacts of Storm Xavier compare to the 1953 storm surge?
Impacts were much lower; 1953 storm surge resulted in 307 deaths and 65,000 ha of farmland flooded.
75
What was the economic loss equivalent to from the 1953 storm surge in today's terms?
$1.2 billion
76
What measures helped prevent more severe impacts during Storm Xavier?
Improved flood defenses, including the Thames Barrier, and better forecasting.
77
How many homes were protected by the Thames Barrier during Storm Xavier?
800,000 homes
78
What role did improved forecasting play during Storm Xavier?
It helped save lives and mitigate flooding or erosion impacts.
79
What is the main impact of climate change on coastal flood risk?
Increased frequency and magnitude of storms, sea level rise
## Footnote
The pace and magnitude of this threat is uncertain.
80
What did the UN's Intergovernmental Panel on Climate Change (IPCC) predict in its 5th Assessment Report regarding sea level rise by 2100?
Sea level will rise by 18-59 cm
## Footnote
The pace and extent of sea level rise is uncertain due to various factors.
81
What factors contribute to the uncertainty of sea level rise predictions?
Population growth, economic development, natural feedback, political commitment
## Footnote
Efforts to restrict greenhouse gas emissions also play a role.
82
What is one example of adaptation to rising sea levels?
Building sea walls
## Footnote
Example: 3 m sea wall on the North Norfolk coast.
83
What is the height and cost of the artificial island Hulhamalé?
4 m above sea level, cost $32 million
## Footnote
Created by reclamation of sediment from the sea bed between 1997-2002.
84
What is one type of flood defense structure mentioned?
Storm surge barriers
## Footnote
Examples: Thames Barrier, Eastern Scheldt Barrier in the Netherlands.
85
What is the purpose of restoring mangrove forests in coastal areas?
Protection belts against flooding
## Footnote
Example: Sri Lanka replanting after the 2004 Indian Ocean tsunami.
86
What is the effect of reducing greenhouse gas emissions on coastal flood risk?
Mitigates sea level rise and cyclone intensity
## Footnote
Efforts to limit global warming can help reduce the magnitude of flooding events.
87
Fill in the blank: The area of the world's major deltas at risk from coastal flooding is likely to increase by _______.
50%
## Footnote
This indicates a significant rise in vulnerability due to climate change.
88
What are the main factors contributing to coastal erosion?
Wind and waves, changes to weather systems, and sea level rise.
## Footnote
Coastal erosion is expected to increase due to the combined effects of these factors.
89
What is the confidence level regarding evidence of increased wind speeds and larger waves?
Medium confidence.
## Footnote
There is some evidence supporting increased wind speeds and larger waves.
90
What is predicted for tropical cyclones by 2100 regarding strength and associated rainfall?
Strength predicted to increase by 2-11%, with associated rainfall increasing by 20%.
## Footnote
This prediction is based on warmer ocean surface temperatures and increased moisture in the atmosphere.
91
Will the frequency of tropical cyclones likely change according to current predictions?
Frequency is likely to remain unchanged.
## Footnote
However, there may be more larger storms.
92
What has been observed regarding the number of tropical storms becoming hurricanes in the North Atlantic?
Increased from 6 in the 1900s to 8 per year from 2000-2016.
## Footnote
This observation reflects a trend over a specific period.
93
What is the confidence level regarding the increase in maximum intensity of tropical cyclones in the Pacific and Indian Oceans?
Low confidence.
## Footnote
No observed increase in maximum intensity over the last 20 years.
94
Are there statistically significant long-term trends in the number and intensity of tropical cyclones?
No statistically significant long-term trend.
## Footnote
The number and intensity of tropical cyclones are highly variable each year and decade.
95
What are storm surges linked to in mid-latitudes?
Depressions that are likely to become more common.
## Footnote
More intense tropical cyclones can produce larger temporary sea level rises.
96
What effect will more intense tropical cyclones have on surface air pressure?
Produce even lower surface air pressure.
## Footnote
This can lead to larger temporary sea level rises and increased risk of coastal flooding.
97
What is expected to happen to polar front jet streams?
They will accelerate, possibly increasing the number and intensity of depressions and storm surges.
## Footnote
This acceleration may affect weather patterns significantly.
98
What is the uncertainty regarding the magnitude and timing of changes in weather patterns?
The magnitude and timing of all these changes is uncertain.
## Footnote
This uncertainty complicates predictions about future weather events.
99
What were the estimated damages in Tacloban due to the disaster?
About US $2 billion
## Footnote
This figure highlights the significant economic impact of the disaster on the region.
100
What percentage of structures were destroyed or damaged in Tacloban?
90%
## Footnote
This indicates the extent of devastation in the city.
101
How many deaths were reported in Tacloban?
At least 6,300
## Footnote
This reflects the human toll of the disaster.
102
How many people were injured in Tacloban?
30,000
## Footnote
This number underscores the scale of injuries resulting from the disaster.
103
How many people were left homeless in Tacloban?
1.9 million
## Footnote
This statistic illustrates the displacement caused by the disaster.
104
How many people were displaced as a result of the disaster in Tacloban?
6 million
## Footnote
This includes those who fled to Manila.
105
What was the cause of the 1953 North Sea flood in the Netherlands?
A mid-latitude depression generating a 5m storm surge
## Footnote
This meteorological event led to significant flooding.
106
What percentage of Dutch farmland was flooded during the 1953 North Sea flood?
Almost 10%
## Footnote
This figure highlights the agricultural impact of the flood.
107
How many buildings were damaged in the Netherlands during the 1953 flood?
40,000
## Footnote
This reflects the extensive damage to infrastructure.
108
How many buildings were destroyed in the Netherlands during the 1953 flood?
10,000
## Footnote
This statistic shows the severity of the destruction.
109
How many deaths were caused by the 1953 North Sea flood?
1,800
## Footnote
This emphasizes the human cost of the disaster.
110
What caused the UK 2013-14 winter storms?
Coastal and other flooding from a succession of depressions and their storm surges
## Footnote
This meteorological pattern led to widespread impacts.
111
What was the estimated damage from the UK 2013-14 winter storms?
About £1 billion
## Footnote
This highlights the economic repercussions of the storms.
112
How many deaths occurred during the UK 2013-14 winter storms?
17
## Footnote
This number reflects fatalities resulting from various causes.
113
What was the impact of Hurricane Sandy in terms of damage?
US $70 billion
## Footnote
This indicates the extensive financial toll of the hurricane.
114
How many people lost power during Hurricane Sandy?
6 million
## Footnote
This statistic highlights the scale of the power outage.
115
How many homes in New Jersey were damaged or destroyed by Hurricane Sandy?
350,000
## Footnote
This illustrates the significant impact on housing.
116
What are the two main types of losses from coastal recession?
Economic and social losses.
117
What economic losses are quantified from coastal recession?
Loss of or damage to property including homes, businesses, and farmland.
118
How are economic losses from coastal recession typically characterized?
They tend to be very localized and costs depend on land use and location.
119
What was the estimated value of English agricultural land per hectare in 2015?
£21,000 per ha.
120
What was the estimated value of industrial/business land per hectare in 2015?
£500,000 per ha.
121
What is the range of residential land values per hectare in England?
From £500,000 (North Yorkshire) to £2.1 million (Dorset).
122
What is the cost range for re-routing a two-lane road per 100 meters?
Between £150,000 and £250,000.
123
What was the cost to repair the South Devon Main Line Railway in February 2014?
£35 million.
124
What were the estimated business losses in the South West due to coastal recession?
£60 million.
125
What can happen to businesses if areas become unattractive due to coastal recession?
Economic losses due to depopulation.
126
What is a potential risk for a whole village due to coastal recession?
Risk of losing the entire village.
127
What can lead to falling property values during a coastal recession?
An inability to sell property.
128
What event in 1993 led to the collapse of the Holbeck Hall Hotel?
140 mm of rain in 2 months.
129
What was the financial loss associated with the Holbeck Hall Hotel collapse?
£2 million.
130
What is a consequence of unexpected recession in coastal areas?
Localized loss of assets.
131
What is the UK's 'Coastal Change Pathfinder' projects?
Initiatives funded to assist with relocation and demolition due to coastal erosion.
132
How much funding did the East Riding of Yorkshire receive from the Coastal Change Pathfinder?
£1.2 million.
133
What costs are covered by the Coastal Change Pathfinder projects?
* Property demolition and site restoration
* Up to £1000 in relocation expenses
* Up to £200 in hardship expenses.
134
What do 'rollback' policies in the Coastal Change Pathfinder projects provide?
Fast-tracked planning approval to build a new home elsewhere.
135
What does the Environment Agency estimate regarding property loss by 2035?
800 properties will be lost.
136
How many properties does the Environment Agency estimate will be lost by 2035?
800 properties
137
Why are the overall economic losses from erosion considered small?
* Erosion happens slowly
* Property at risk loses its value to buyers long before erosion risk
* High-density population areas tend to be protected by coastal defenses
138
What are some social impacts of relocation due to erosion?
* Cost
* Break up of community
* Loss of friends and activities
* Stress
139
What are the quantifiable losses associated with loss of livelihoods?
* Source of income
* Financial problems
* Job searching stress
140
What contributes to losses in amenity value and economic losses to businesses?
* Abandoned buildings
* Damaged roads
* Rerouted footpaths
* Loss of access to beach
141
What is meant by amenity value?
The value in cultural, human well-being, and economic terms of an attractive environment people enjoy using
142
What factors make an environment unattractive due to erosion?
* Cliff collapse
* Failing sea defenses
* Blocked roads/paths
143
What are the serious economic and social consequences of coastal flooding and storm surges?
They can have serious consequences for coastal communities in both developing and developed countries.
144
How do flooding and storm surges differ in terms of occurrence?
Flooding and storm surges are one-off events that can occur decades apart.
145
Which event tends to have a larger areal extent and greater losses?
Flooding tends to be larger in areal extent and involves greater losses.
146
What is a storm surge?
A temporary rise in sea level produced by very low surface air pressure that leads to short-term coastal flooding.
147
In which latitudes are storm surges more serious?
Storm surges tend to be more serious in tropical latitudes.
148
What is the estimated sea level rise by 2100 according to the IPCC for Australia?
The estimated sea level rise is 28-98 cm, with the most likely rise being 55 cm.
149
What would a 1 m rise in sea level flood in Australia?
* 116,000 homes causing property damage of US $72 billion
* $87 billion worth of commercial property threatened
* $67 billion road and rail infrastructure
* 5 power stations
* 258 emergency service stations
* 75 hospitals
* 44 water and sewage plants.
150
What are the social costs of flooding in developed countries?
* Break up of communities
* Loss of livelihood (e.g. fishing, tourism)
* Amenity loss.
151
What would happen to the Great Barrier Reef if it cannot keep up with sea level rise?
Coral reefs forming the Great Barrier Reef will die, leading to a loss in tourism income.
152
What significant event occurred on December 5, 2013, in the UK?
A large storm surge hit the east coast of the UK causing widespread flooding along the coast.
153
What were the conditions that led to the 2013 North Sea Flood in the UK?
Low pressure, high winds, and high tidal pressures combined.
154
How many deaths occurred in the UK due to the 2013 North Sea Flood?
2 deaths.
155
What was the impact on the community of Rhyl, Denbighshire during the 2013 flooding?
Hundreds of people were evacuated.
156
Fill in the blank: Storm surges can lead to short-term _______ flooding.
coastal
157
True or False: Coastal erosion poses a higher risk to people than storm surges.
False
158
What specific areas were affected in Suffolk during the 2013 flooding?
Businesses affected in Lowestoft.
159
What percentage of superpowers are represented in the context?
38%
160
What event led to 2 deaths in the UK?
Flooding
161
What was the impact on Rhyl, Denbighshire?
Hundreds of people were evacuated
162
What was damaged in Skegness due to flooding?
Nature reserve
163
What was the economic impact on Lowestoft, Suffolk?
Loss of livelihood due to flooding
164
How many homes were reported flooded in England and Wales?
1,400 homes
165
What was the total damage cost reported over the winter?
About £1 billion
166
What happened to rail services in Scotland during the flooding?
All rail services cancelled
167
How many homes lost power in Scotland and Northern England?
40,000 homes
168
What is the estimated rise in sea level by 2100 in the Philippines according to the IPCC?
60 cm - 1 m
169
What is the estimated property damage cost for a 1 m rise in the Philippines?
$6.5 billion
170
What area in the Philippines is predicted to lose 123,000 m² of beach?
San Fernando in the north of Luzon
171
What is the annual tourism revenue loss predicted for San Fernando?
$95,000 p.a.
172
What are the estimated losses for the fishing industry in the Philippines?
$168,000 p.a.
173
How many people would a 1 m rise affect in the Philippines?
2.3 million people
174
What percentage of Manila would be affected by a 1 m rise?
62%
175
What social costs arise from loss of livelihood in the Philippines?
Difficult to find alternative employment in the formal sector
176
What was the storm surge height of Typhoon Haiyan in 2013?
4-5 m
177
What were the estimated damages from Typhoon Haiyan?
About US $2 billion
178
What percentage of structures were destroyed or damaged in Tacloban due to Typhoon Haiyan?
90%
179
What is soft engineering?
A range of techniques that work with natural processes to protect coasts
180
What is beach nourishment?
The addition of sand or pebbles to an existing beach to make it higher or wider
181
What is the purpose of cliff regrading?
To reduce the angle of the cliff and help stabilize it
182
What does drainage do in coastal management?
Removes water to prevent landslides and slumping
183
How can dunes be stabilized?
By planting marram grass and fencing areas to keep people off
184
What is marsh creation?
A form of managed retreat allowing low-lying areas to flood and become salt marshes
185
List advantages of soft engineering techniques
* Relatively cheap and easy to maintain
* Looks natural and blends with existing beach
* Increases tourist potential by creating a bigger beach
* Effective on clay or loose rock
* Cost-effective drainage
* Maintains natural coastal environment
* Provides important wildlife habitats
* Sustainable
* Creates natural defence against waves
186
What is a disadvantage of soft engineering?
Requires constant maintenance due to erosion and longshore drift
187
True or False: Regrading causes the cliff to retreat.
True
188
What can happen to drained cliffs?
They can dry out and lead to collapse (rock falls)
189
What is the cost of beach nourishment for 100 metres?
£300,000
190
What is the variable cost range for marsh creation?
€200 to £2000 for 100 metres
191
Fill in the blank: Soft engineering techniques often involve land reverting to its original state before it was managed for _______.
agriculture
192
What is a potential social disadvantage of dune stabilisation?
People may respond negatively to being kept off certain areas
193
What needs to happen to compensate farmers or landowners due to agricultural land loss?
They need to be compensated
