费正清 中国新史笔记(1) Flashcards
中国南方梯田美景 The green terrain（地形） is hilly, and the flat crescent-shaped（新月形) rice terraces（梯田） march up each hill almost to the top
and on the other side descend again from near the crest, terrace upon terrace in endless succession, each embankment conforming to the lay of the land like the contour lines（等高线） of a geographer’s chart.
原始社会华北平原水利技术In previous periods China’s rulers confronted in every flood season the debouching（溢出） of the river upon the North China plain in full force.
In prehistoric times, however, flooding of the plain was less of a problem than the reclamation（开垦） of it from its primitive swamp and fen （湿地与沼泽）conditions; water-control techniques were developed for drainage purposes as well as for flood prevention and irrigation.
中国本土和美国农业与畜牧业对比China proper（中国本土） (as distinct from Inner Asia; see below)
cannot afford to raise cattle for food. Of the land that can be used at all, nine tenths is cultivated for crops, and only about 2 percent is pasture for animals. By comparison, in the United States only four tenths of the used land is put into crops, and almost half of it is put into pasture.
农耕社会的必然
The heavy application of manpower and fertilizer to small plots of land has also had its social repercussions（反响，影响）, for it sets up a vicious interdependence between dense population and intensive use of the soil whereby each makes the other possible.
当机械遇见人力
Early modernizers of China, in their attempts to introduce the machine, constantly ran up against （遭遇）the vested interest （既得利益）of Chinese manpower, since in the short run the machine appeared to be in competition with human hands and backs.
种植经济作物，扼杀资本萌芽Pressure from rising population drove many Chinese farmers in the Late Imperial era to switch from grain production to the growing of commercial crops (such as cotton in the Yangzi delta). This offered a greater return per unit of land but not per individual workday.
It was a survival strategy（生存策略）—Philip Huang (1990, 1991) calls it “involution”（退步）—in which substantial commercialization could take place without leading either to modern capitalist development or to the freeing of the Chinese farmer from a life of bare subsistence.
中西方迥然不同的人与自然This different relation of human beings to nature in the West and East has been one of the salient（尖锐的） contrasts between the two civilizations.
Man has been at the center of the Western stage. The rest of nature has served as either neutral background or as an adversary.
西方的以人为本
Thus Western religion is anthropomorphic（赋予人性的）, and early Western painting anthropocentric（以人为中心的）.
中国集体主义的出现
Living so closely involved with family members and neighbors has accustomed the Chinese people to a collective life in which the group normally dominates the individual.
有集体，无个人A room of one’s own, more readily available in the New World than in the crowded East, has symbolized a higher standard of living.
Thus, one generalization in the lore （知识、学识）about China is the absorption of the individual not only in the world of nature but also in the social collectivity.
污染
Chemicals and industrial effluents（排污） pollute the water, while use of unwashed soft coal（烟煤） for energy pollutes the air. Hard coal（无烟煤）
农村民居
Even now the Chinese people are still mostly farmers tilling the soil, living mainly in villages, in houses of brown sun-dried brick, bamboo, or whitewashed wattle(板条）, or sometimes stone, with earth or stone floors, and often paper, not glass, in the windows.
贫苦不废文明传承their ability to maintain a highly civilized life under these poor conditions.
The answer lies in their social institutions, which have carried the individuals of each family through the phases and vicissitudes （兴衰）of human existence according to deeply ingrained patterns of behavior.
家族体系有推动力，也有粘滞力
China has been a stronghold of the family system and has derived both strength and inertia（惯性、懒惰） from it.
“孝”字愚人The family, not the individual, was the social unit and the responsible element in the political life of its locality.
The filial piety and obedience inculcated（反复灌输） in family life were the training ground for loyalty to the ruler and obedience to the constituted authority in the state.
父权至上In fact, Chinese parents were by custom as well as by nature particularly loving toward small children, and they were also bound by a reciprocal（交互的，互惠的） code of responsibility for their children as family members.
But law and custom provided little check on paternal tyranny if a father chose to exercise it.
长慈子孝，男尊女卑
The domination of age over youth within the old-style family was matched by the domination of male over female.
为姻而婚
A girl’s marriage was arranged and not for love.
纳妾与休妻
She might see secondary wives or concubines brought into the household, particularly if she did not bear a male heir. She could be repudiated by her husband for various reasons.
女未立，成附庸
All this reflected the fact that a woman had no economic independence.
阴阳调和，以生天地
Ancient China had viewed the world as the product of two interacting complementary（相互补充） elements, yin and yang.
男定女规
an endless succession of Chinese male moralists worked out the behavior pattern of obedience and passivity that was expected of women.
幼从兄，出从夫，长从子
These patterns subordinated girls to boys from infancy and kept the wife subordinate to her husband and the mother to her grown son.
女主垂帘
Forceful women, whom China has never lacked, usually controlled their families by indirection, not by fiat（命令、许可）.
三纲the famous “three bonds” emphasized by the Confucian philosophers:
the bond of loyalty on the part of subject to ruler (minister to prince), of filial obedience on the part of son to father (children to parents), and of chastity（贞洁、纯洁） on the part of wives but not of husbands.
愚妇笨子，家传万代
In Jonathan Ocko’s summary (in Kwang-Ching Liu, 1990), wives were “ineluctably （不可避免的）destabilizing elements,” promising descendants, yet always threatening the bond of obedience between parents and sons.
父严母慈，戒淫戒怒
Motherly nurture and fatherly discipline combined to concentrate the young scholar’s effort on self-control and on the suppression of sexual and frivolous（轻佻、无聊的，琐碎的） impulses.
家即是国，国便是家
The traditional family system was highly successful at preparing the Chinese to accept similar patterns of status in other institutions, including the official hierarchy of the government.
等级制度，自然而然
One advantage of a system of status is that a man knows automatically where he stands in his family or society. He can have security in the knowledge that if he does his prescribed part, he may expect reciprocal action from others in the system.
亲缘关系越细化，家族权责越明显Within the extended family, every child from birth was involved in a highly ordered system of kinship relations with elder brothers, sisters, maternal elder brothers’ wives, and other kinds of aunts, uncles, cousins, grandparents, and in-laws too numerous for a Westerner to keep track of.
These relationships were not only more clearly named and differentiated than in the West but also carried with them more compelling rights and duties dependent upon status.
家为小国，血亲为规
Buttressed（扶壁，支持） by genealogies（宗谱、血统）, lineage（家族） members might share common interests both economic and political in the local society.
家传长子，地分同胞
The Chinese kinship system in both the North and South is patrilineal, the family headship passing in the male line from father to eldest son.While the family headship passes intact from father to eldest son, the family property does not.
分田产，小民逾穷，官不屯田
The consequent parcelization of the land tended to weaken the continuity of family land-holding, forestall（预先阻止） the growth of landed power among officials, and keep peasant families on the margin of subsistence.
四世同堂，贫家少见
The large joint family of several married sons with many children all within one compound, which has often been regarded as typical of China, appears to have been the ideal exception, a luxury that only the well-to-do could afford.
家逾分逾穷
Division of the land among the sons constantly checked the accumulation of property and savings, and the typical family had little opportunity to rise on the social scale. Peasants were bound to the soil not by law and custom so much as by their own numbers.
家族是典型的社会、经济单元
Each family household is both a social and an economic unit. Its members derive their sustenance from working its fields and their social status from membership in it.
集市、货郎The town market functioned periodically—say, every first, fourth, and seventh day in a ten-day cycle—
so that itinerant （流动的、巡回的）merchants could visit it regularly while visiting a central market and the adjoining town markets five miles away in similar cycles—say, every second, fifth, and eighth day or every third, sixth, and ninth day.
南北不同异于农耕游牧
The contrasts between North and South China are superficial compared with those between the pastoral（游牧的） nomadism of the plateaus（高原） of Inner Asia and the settled villages based on the intensive agriculture of China.
亚洲内陆邻接满蒙突厥藏
Inner Asia denotes（表示、指示） the originally non-Chinese regions abutting （邻接于）China in a wide arc running from Manchuria through Mongolia and Turkestan to Tibet.（满蒙突厥藏）
百万蒙藏占地与十亿汉人相当On the steppe（大草原）, population is thinly scattered;
today there are only a few million Mongols and hardly more than that number of Tibetans in the arid plateau regions that more than equal the area occupied by over a billion Chinese who trace their ancestry to the Han dynasty .
汉人农耕、蛮人游牧
Just as intensive agriculture molded the Chinese, so the sheep and horse economy of Inner Asia conditioned the nomad.
羊肉为食，皮为衣，粪为柴
From his flocks, the nomad secured food, sheepskins for clothing, shelter in the form of felt for his yurt（圆顶帐篷）, and fuel in the form of sheep dung（粪）.
汉人的文化自豪
Here lies one source of China’s “culturalism”—that is, the devotion of the Chinese people to their way of life, an across-the-board（全面的，全盘的） sentiment as strong as the political nationalism of recent centuries in Europe.
被侵略与“汉化”Chinese culturalism arose from the difference in culture between China and the Inner Asian “barbarians.”
Because the Inner Asian invaders became more powerful as warriors, the Chinese found their refuge in social institutions and feelings of cultural and aesthetic（审美的） superiority—something that alien conquest could not take away.
专制不等于暴政
But autocracy is a matter of degree and takes various forms. It may be defined at one extreme as the capacity of a ruler to impose his will upon his state and society. This borders on despotism or tyranny.
皇权的约束
In operational terms, however, an autocrat like the emperor of China had to contend with（与…做对，斗争） procedural rules as well as moral admonitions（警告） and his own interests and reputation.
皇帝—某种意义上的玩偶
He was burdened by many duties and manipulated by the system—by his courtiers during the day and by his harem at night. What a crowded life!
政治不仅限于官僚
However, the aspects of Chinese autocracy that will be described in the following chapters are not those of the palace treadmill（跑步机、单调的工作） but rather certain other features that seem to have stood out in the Chinese case.
皇帝制度的活力表征中国社会的凝聚和统一
we may see the vigor of the imperial institution as a rough index（指数） to the strength of China’s social cohesion（凝聚、结合） and unity.
旧石器时代；新石器时代
Paleolithic China；Neolithic China
小麦、陶器、书写、驷马战车源于西亚
it arose suddenly from the diffusion(发散、传播） of West Asian cultural traits（特性、品质） like wheat, pottery, writing, or the horse-drawn chariot as a “civilization by osmosis（渗透）,” bit by bit coming across Central Asia from the West.
中国两条南北向山脉China has two north-south chains of mountains: one along the coast, running discontinuously from the northeast (formerly called Manchuria) through Shandong province and the southeast coast to Hong Kong and Hainan Island.
The other chain is inland on the eastern edge of the Central Asian plateau, running from Shanxi province south through Sichuan to the southwest China upland.
北京人能吃They were hunter-fisher-gatherers and used fire to illuminate their cave and to cook their meat, 70 percent of which
consisted of deer, although bones of the leopard（豹，美洲豹）, bear, saber-toothed tiger(剑齿虎）, hyena（鬣狗，土狼）, elephant, rhinoceros（犀牛）, camel, water buffalo, boar（野猪，公猪）, and horse were also found.
旧石器时代中国人已有家庭观念
Archaeologists like K. C. Chang have concluded that Old Stone Age man in China was not a mere chipper of rocks; basic ideas of kinship, authority, religion, and art that can still be found in China today were already developing in these early cultures.
农耕出现表征新石器时代开始
The Neolithic Age that began in China about 12,000 years ago was marked by the spread of settled agricultural communities.
山东全岛、河南看海景
Today’s North China plain between Shanxi and Shandong was mainly lakes and marshes（沼泽）—Shandong was almost an island off the coast. Today’s provinces of Hebei and Henan were still fens not easily habitable.
原始人开始种粮食
hardy perennial plants（多年生耐寒植物）that hunter-fisher-gatherer communities might have gradually begun to use for food had to be substituted by annual seed crops that could be regularly planted and harvested—in short, cultivated.
新石器中国的多源头
Thus, it seems that Neolithic China developed in several centers from Paleolithic origins.
