1. Flashcards

Question

Explain the concept of Matched pairs

Answer 1

- pps are matched on areas related to the study in which they are similar ( IQ, age , ability etc) - attempts to control confounding and participant variables

Answer 2

+ pps less likely to guess the aim + order effects less likely + less time consuming if conditions can be carried out simultaneously - reduced validity - less economical - twice as many pps required - confounding variables

Answer 3

+ less time consuming to recruit + no participant variables + internal validity increase - more likely to guess the aim- demand characteristics (socially desirable thoughts) - effects may carry on to the second condition

Answer 4

+ order effects and demand characteristics less likely as PPS only take part in once condition + matching process reduces pps variables - pps can never be matched directly - matching is time consuming and expensive

Answer 5

-naturalistic -controlled -covert -overt -participant -non-participant OBSERVATIONS are good for capturing what people actually do but have observer bias

Answer 6

NATURALISTIC: when observations are done in a natural ordeal-life settings(hospitals, homes, schools etc.) The observer makes no effort to control or manipulate the situation for making an observation. CONTROLLED: when you control certain factors that determine behaviour as they are not the focus of your study(laboratory) eg. smoke could only be introduced in a controlled laboratory experiment (Bibb Latane and John Darley conducted a study in 1970)

Answer 7

COVERT: observations take place without obtaining consent first. PPS are unaware they are being observed. OVERT: observations take place with consent and pps are aware they are being watched

Answer 8

Participant: Researcher is active member of the group being observed Non-Participant: Researchers try to conceal their presence while making observations and are separate from the group

Answer 9

NATURALISTIC: + high external validity as findings can be generalised to every day life - lack of control makes replication difficult CONTROLLED: + confounding/extraneous variables may be less of a factor so replication of the observation becomes easier - may produce findings that cannot be readily applied to everyday life

Answer 10

COVERT : + removes demand characteristics + increase internal validity - ethics may be questioned as people OVERT: + more ethically acceptable - demand characteristics may have some influence on behaviour

Answer 11

PARTICIPANT: + increased insight into people lives + increase external validity - lose objectivity( as researchers can be going native) NON-PARTICPANT: + researcher maintains objective psychological distance - may lose valuable insight as theirs distance

Answer 12

- You write down everything you observe - better when sample size is small and likelihood of producing large amounts of data is less + rich in detail - observer bias - difficult and time consuming to analyse

Answer 13

- researcher makes behavioural categories and observe and only write down info that fits into those categories - better when there is too much target behaviour occurring and its difficult to record + less susceptible to bias + data easier and less time consuming to analyse - lacking in meaningful depth data

Answer 14

- distinct - definable - measurable

Answer 15

1) time sampling - recording behaviour in predetermined timeframes. 2) event sampling- counting the number of times a specific 'event' occurs.

Answer 16

Time: + reduces total number of observations needed - behaviour may be unrepresentative of general or target population Event: + good for infrequent behaviour which may be missed when using time sampling - research may overlook behaviours if categories are complex or confusing

Answer 17

OPEN: no fixed range on answers, with wide range of different responses and qualitative data CLOSED: fixed set of responses so yes or no , maybe rate 1-10 and it's quantitative data

Answer 18

STURCUTRED: strict set of questions to be asked in the same manner and order SEMI-STRUCTURED: predetermined questions with follow-up questions UNSTRUCTURED: no set questions so like a convo Interview schedules are standardised set of questions that interviews will follow with aims to reduce interviewer bias and questions must not be leading but probes can be used

Answer 19

Likert: the respondent indicates the degree in which they agree with a statement. The scale would usually range from strongly agree to strongly disagree Rank: similar to LIKERT but pps would identify a numerical value that represents their feelings towards the topic Fixed-choice: choice of possible options that they can choose from and will be told to tick ' all that apply'

Answer 20

QUESTIONNAIRES: + cost-effective + large amounts of data gathered quickly + no need for a researcher present so reduces effort + straightforward to analyse in forms statistical analysis - responses may not be truthful - demand characteristic called social desirability bias - response bias as respondents answer in the same way - might be rushed INTERVIEWS: + structured are easy to replicate + more flexibility in unstructured + unstructured should be more truthful responses as they are detailed reponses - limits the richness of data as theirs a nature of the structured interview - increased risk of interview bias as unstructured can be made up questions - harder to analyse as there could be irrelevant info - unstructured may lie for reasons of social desirability

Answer 21

- an experiment controls and manipulates the IV in order to measure the DV. This deliberate change allows us to infer that IV has a causal effect on the DV - in a correlation there is no manipulation of an IV so it is not possible to establish a cause and effect relationship

Answer 22

+ preliminary research, saves time no experiment needed + more ethical- no changing anything + clear as correlation signifies a clear relationship or absence there of - causation as we cant determine causes of correlation - we don't know why there's a correlation - can only draw inferences so lacks internal/external validity - third variable so extraneous variables

Answer 23

STRENGTH: Rich detail-insight into unusual/atypical behaviour-valid STRENGTH: Contribute to understanding of normal function-HM (separate memory stores) STRENGTH: Can generate hypotheses for future study. LIMITATION: Small sample- can't generalise findings. LIMITATION: Information based on subjective selection by researcher. LIMITATION: Personal accounts- inaccurate, memory decay. LIMITATION: Low validity.

Answer 24

informed consent, deception, protection from harm, privacy and confidentiality, right to withdraw, debrief. (cost benefit analysis is looked into to decide whether a prospect can go ahead)

Answer 25

PRESUMPTIVE- similar group of people asked if the study is acceptable, if answer is yes, presumptive consent from the original group is decided PRIOR GENERAL- pps give permission to take part in a number of studies, one of which may involve deception RETROSPECTIVE- pps give consent after they have already taken part during a debrief

Answer 26

Random- each person in the target population has an equal chance of taking part Volunteer- the study id advertised to the population Opportunity- researcher asks anyone who is close by Systematic- every nth member is selected Stratified- the sample reflects the proportions of sub groups and groups that make up the population are identified.

Answer 27

+ truly random + less subjective to bias + more likely to achieve a representative sample ( better external validity) - difficult and time consuming to obtain a full list of the population - results could still be distorted - could result in a volunteer sample

Answer 28

+ easy and require minimal time and effort to obtain a sample + pps will be more engaged with the research than people off the street - volunteer profile bias - external validity - ulterior motives - internal validity

Answer 29

+ convenient and less time consuming + less costly - more likely to get an unrepresentative sample so low external validity - could be subject to researcher bias

Answer 30

+ objective + no researcher bias - time consuming - may result in a volunteer sample

Answer 31

+ sample is representative so high external validity + generalisation is possible - cannot identify all the ways people are different - time consuming

Answer 32

- its a small-scale test of the methods and procedures to be used on a larger scale to assess the acceptability of an approach to be used in a large-scale study - may involve a handful of pps in order to ' road test' the procedure and check the investigation runs smoothly.

Answer 33

observational study of people through their indirect communication media so it can be diaries, interview transcripts and status updates. Analyse and turn the qualitative data into quantitative data to allow it to become more objective and identify trends.

Answer 34

the analysis of patterns and themes within data and analysis of qualitative data usually is a transcript form, such as an interview or open questionnaire. Similar to content analysis in that data is coded ( it can't be a video) and themes are developed( recurring idea)

Answer 35

1) data is collected 2) the researcher familarises themselves with the data 3) the researcher identifies coding units( categories) 4) the researcher applies the coding units, tallying how many times they occur

Answer 36

1) familarisation of data 2)generate initial codes 3) search for themes 4) review themes 5) define and name themes 6) write a report

Answer 37

STRENGTHS: - quick and easy to carry out - allows for statistical analysis - easily replicated by others - based on observations of what people actually do - the person who created the artefact didn't know it could be used for content analysis WEAKNESSES:- causality not established - could be culturally or age biased - can be 'time-locked' - data is merely described - interpretation of coding might be different

Answer 38

1) standard deviation- dispersion of data around the mean 2) range- dispersions of a data set of scores

Answer 39

1) mode- most frequently occurring and used when data is in categories and is not affected by outliers and is a very crude measure 2) median- middle number and easy to calculate and extreme scores do not affect the median 3) mean- the average number and its the most sensitive of measures as it takes all values in data set into account, so it is most representative measure however it can be distorted by extreme values( anomalies)

Answer 40

- they allow for categorical data to be compared and presented visually BUT THEY SHOULD NOT TOUCH - used when there's discrete data when there are two conditions, IV on x-axis, DV along the y-axis

Answer 41

- displays continuous data and BARS DO NOT TOUCH - x-axis has the IV and y-axis has the frequency within each interval - need to figure out class width and frequency divides by class gives frequency density

Answer 42

Shows the relationship between two variables ( dependent variable)

Answer 43

Distribution graphs give us a virtual how data is spread out. Depending on the direction of the distribution, we can infer where the majority of the data sits. 1) NEGATIVE SKEW: mode is at the highest peak, median in the middle and mean is dragged towards the tail 2) NORMAL DISTRIBUTION: mean, median and mode would all fall in the centre of the bell curve 3) POSITIVE SKEW: mode is at the highest peak, median in the middle and mean is dragged towards the tail

Answer 44

1) NOMINAL: - data that can be places in categories specifically tables or bar charts - you're able to count the number of items in a category e.g. count how many people prefer maths or english 2) ORDINAL: ranked or ordered numerical data so its an opinion - does not have equal intervals e.g. ranking anxiety, happiness and enjoyment of football 3) INTERVAL: - numerical data - doesn't have equal intervals - universal intervals e.g. anything that increases or decreases in precise increments such as temperature, weight and height

Answer 45

- Experiments: replication (if the results are the same or very similar, the experiment is reliable ) -Self-report( can be surveys or interviews): test-retest reliability - Observations: inter-observer reliability

Answer 46

- the same test is administered to the same person twice at different times. - if the test is reliable, the results will be the same or at the least very close across all tests - scores are correlated to show whether similar, a coefficient +0.8 or higher shows a significant similarity, so test is reliable

Answer 47

QUESTIONNAIRES : produces low test- retest reliability may require some of the items to be 'deselected' or rewritten. INTERVIEWS : use the same interviews each time and interviews must be properly trained and use a structured interviews. OBSERVATIONS : make sure behavioural categories have been properly opertionalised, measurable and self-evident. Categories should not overlap and all possible behaviours should be covered on the checklist and observer may need further training in using the behavioural categories EXPERIMENTS : use standarised procedure for types of environments and the way you recruit pps. Procedures must be consistent everytime.

Answer 48

Face validity : a basic form of validity in which a measure is scrutinised to determine to determine whether it appears to measure what it is supposed to measure Concurrent validity : a form of testing validity whereby pps receive a new measure against an already valid measure to check whether the results are similar.

Answer 49

EXPERIMENTS : redesign procedure or test to make it more realistic to improve mundane realism and clearer method. Better opertionalisation of variables , control variables. Replication lab experiments in a more natural setting to see if results compare and make sure your sample is representative- age, gender and intelligence. OBSERVATIONS: better operationalisation of behavioural checklist and change the types of sampling( time/ event) , retrain observers and conduct in other settings, times , data and change the pps way of being sampled ( volunteer, stratified...) QUESTIONNARIES: revise questions ad re-check concurrent validity.

Answer 50

- involves aspects of the written investigation being scrutinised by a small group of usually two or three experts in the particular field. These experts should conduct an objective review and be unknown to the author or researcher

Answer 51

1) to allocate research funding 2) to validate the quality and relevance of research ( assessing quality and accuracy for hypotheses, methods, tests and conclusions drawn) 2) to suggest amendments or improvements ( in extreme cases this means concluding work inappropriate for publication or should be withdrawn)

Answer 52

- Anonymity, researcher likely to produce honest appraisal but a minority use this as a way of criticising rivals - Publication bias , tendency for editors of journalists to publish significant headline grabbing findings to increase credibility. Research that doesn't show positive results may be discarded creating a false impression of psych and researchers could self review which could be very biased -Process may suppress opposition to mainstream theories wishing to maintain the status quo. Reviewers tend to be more critical of research that contradicts their own view.

Answer 53

Qualitative data- data in words but can be converted to numbers for the purpose of analysis Quantitative data- data that usually given as numbers Primary data - info that has been obtained first-hand by the researcher for the purposes of a research project Secondary Data- info collected by someone else and so pre-dates the current research project

Answer 54

+ can offer much more richness of detail than quantitative data + tends to have greater external validity as more meaningful insight into the pps worldview - more difficult to analyse as its hard to be summarised statistically - conclusions often rely on the subjective interpretations of the researcher and these may be subject to bias

Answer 55

+ relatively simple to analyse , therefore comparisons between groups can be easily drawn + data in numerical form tend to be more objective and less open to bias - its too much narrower in scope and meaning than qualitative data. Therefore may fail to represent 'real-life'

Answer 56

+ it fits the job so authentic data obtained is specific info that the researcher requires - requires time and effort on the part of the researcher.

Answer 57

+ unlike primary data, secondary may be inexpensive and easily accessed requiring minimal effort + no need to conduct primary data collection so time efficient - there may be substantial variation in the quality and accuracy of secondary data - content of data may not match researcher's needs or objective

Answer 58

- provides a way of determining whether hypotheses should be accepted or rejected. In psychology, they tell us whether differences or relationships between variables are statistically significant or have occurred by chance.

Answer 59

- all studies employ what we call a significance level in order for significant differences in relationships. The accepted level is 0.05 (5%). This is the level at which the researcher decides to accept the research/ alternative hypothesis or not.

Answer 60

- its because it means there will be no danger to human life - it also allows us to balance type 1 & 11 errors

Answer 61

A single number found from a table of critical values, which is compared to observed / calculated value to work out if the results of the study are significant.

Answer 62

Rejecting null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis is wrongly accepted. Often referred to as an optimistic error or false positive as there claims to be significant effect when there is not. This is usually occurs when the level is more strict ( stringent- 0.01 instead of 0.05)

Answer 63

Accepting null hypothesis and the alternative hypothesis is wrongly rejected. Often referred to as a pessimistic error or a false negative. There is no relationship. More commonly made when the significance level is too high ( too lenient ) such as 0.1 rather than 0.05 / 5% as significance values could be missed

Answer 64

Its the first section in a journal (150-200 words) Summary of report, aim, hypothesis, method, results & conclusions. Psychologists read these when researching to see if the investigations are worth further examination

Answer 65

Literature review of the general area of investigation detailing relevant theories , concepts and studies that are relevant to the study. Follows a logical progression.

Answer 66

Needs to include sufficient detail so others can replicate it in these sub sections: Replication, design, sample, materials, procedure, ethics

Answer 67

Needs to summarise Key findings descriptive statistics (graphs, tables etc.), measures central tendency & measures of dispersion, Inferential statistics (statistical test, calculated & critical value, level of significance)

Answer 68

Summarise results in verbal form. Should be discussed in the context of the evidence presented in intro and should mindful of the limitations of the present investigation. Might include wider implications of the research like RWA and what contribution this investigation has made to existing knowledge within the field.

Answer 69

Full details of any source material that the researcher drew upon or cited in the report. May include journal articles,books and websites

Answer 70

1)whether a researcher is looking for a difference or a correlation/ association 2) If a difference what experimental design is being used- independent or group or repeated measures 3) the level of measurement for the data - nominal, ordinal or interval

Answer 71

-tests if there is a difference between the data collected in 2 conditions so for example to compare a pps score when they have been tested in 2 conditions. -needs RMD and nominal data 1) Work out the 'calculated value' (s) for your data set 2) Find N this is the number of differences in our data set 3) Compare your 's' to the critical value 4) If the calculated values is LESS than or EQUAL to the critical value you have a significant results and can REJECT the NULL hypothesis and ACCEPT EXPERIMENTAL hypothesis. VICE VERSA

Answer 72

This is how psychology is being accepted as a 'normal' science and accepting the principles. Suggested that what distinguishes scientific disciplines from non-scientific is a shared set of assumptions and methods. Lack a universally accepted paradigm and natural sciences have a set paradigms.

Answer 73

1) A theory is conducted 2) Hypothesis - how is it tested 3) Empirical data - are findings replicable? 4) Interpretation - can findings be generalised and how is the theory altered based on this.

Answer 74

- argued that the key criteria of a scientific theory is its falsifiability. That sciences need to be able to be proven false even if its not false which makes them stronger theories.

Answer 75

- replicability of findings over a number of times increases reliability. This demonstrates that findings are precise over a number of circumstances which aids scientific rigour. - scientific researchers must strive to maintain objectivity by keeping critical distance and not allowing personal biases to discolour data or influence behaviour of pps - objectivity is the basis of the empirical method and it emphasises the importance of the data collection based on direct, sensory experience.

Answer 76

Carrots Should Come Mashed With Swede Under Roast Potatoes.