1 Flashcards
Under extreme pressure, performance may diminish
The yerkes-Dodson law
This type Of study repeatedly measures the same participants on a particular variable over a period of time
Longitudinal study
a group of observations on a single entity over time — e.g. the daily closing prices over one year for a single financial security, or a single patient’s heart rate measured every minute over a one-hour procedure.
Time series
Piagets stages of development
Spcofo
Sensorimotor, preoperational, concrete operational, formal operational
occurs when (a) an individual observes another person (a model) behave in a certain way and experience a consequence perceived as desirable by the observer, and (b) as a result, the observer behaves as the model did.
Your child learns to say “please” because he/she saw a sibling say the same and get rewarded/praised for it.
Vicarious reinforcement
Albert Bandura
Piagets stages of development define
Sensorimotor: learning object permanence
Preoperatinal:(2-5 yes old) verbal and egocentric thinking
Concrete operational : (6-11 yrs old) conservation takes place
Formal operational: (age 12+) ability to conduct abstract training and systematic problem solving
Innate drives determine behavior
Clark hulls theory of motivation
(aka, conditioned taste aversion) is an aversion or distaste for a particular taste or smell that was associated with a negative reaction (such as nausea or vomiting
Garcia effect
posits that the mere presence of others produces increments in levels of arousal. Arousal, in turn, enhances the frequency of dominant responses (i.e., responses with the greatest habit strength
Zajoncs theory, THE DRIVE THEORY OF SOCIAL FACILITATION (Zajonc, 1965
Emotions occur in response to physiological states
James-lange theory
Gestalt 7 laws refer to perceptual organization
Principle of proximity
when we see objects that are close to each other as more related than objects that are far apart
Principle of closure
when we see a complex arrangement, we look for a single, recognizable pattern
Principle of similarity
when we see elements that share characteristics as more related than those that don’t
Principle of continuity
when we see elements that are on a line or curve as more related than elements that aren’t on the line or curve.
Principles of perception
when people instinctively perceive objects as either figure (the focal point) or ground (background).
Principle of organization
five principles that fall under the umbrella of organization: uniform connectedness, common regions, common fate (synchrony), parallelism, and focal points
Principle of symmetry
when people perceive symmetrical elements as part of a unified group.
Social facilitation theory
refers to the finding that people sometimes show an increased level of effort as a result of the real, imagined, or implied presence of others
Social exchange theory
a person will weigh the cost of a social interaction (negative outcome) against the reward of that social interaction (positive outcome).
Halo effect
when one trait of a person or thing is used to make an overall judgment of that person or thing
The tendency for observers, when analyzing another’s behavior, to underestimate the impact of the situation and to overestimate the impact of personal disposition
if someone cuts us off while driving, our first thought might be “What a jerk!” instead of considering the possibility that the driver is rushing someone to the airport.
Fundamental attribution error.
One of 4 types:
Actor-observer bias.
Self-serving bias.
Hostile attribution bias
in addition to over-valuing dispositional explanations of others’ behaviors, people tend to under-value dispositional explanations and over-value situational explanations of their own behavior. For example, a student who studies may explain her behavior by referencing situational factors (e.g., “I have an exam coming up”), whereas others will explain her studying by referencing dispositional factors (e.g., “She’s ambitious and hard-working”
Actor- observer bias
describes when we attribute positive events and successes to our own character or actions, but blame negative results to external factors unrelated to our character
Self serving bias
an interpretive bias wherein individuals exhibit a tendency to interpret others’ ambiguous behaviors as hostile, rather than benign.[8][9] For example, if a child witnesses two other children whispering, they may assume that the children are talking negatively about them.
Hostile attribution bias
refers to an individual’s tendency to attribute another’s actions to their character or personality, while attributing their behavior to external situational factors outside of their control
Fundamental situation error
Neurotransmitter associated with Alzheimer’s
Acetylcholine
Neurotransmitter associated with anxiety disorders
GABA
Neurotransmitter associated with controlling alertness and wakefulness and is implicated in mood disorders such as depression and mania
Norepinephrine
Neurotransmitter associated with Parkinson’s
Dopamine
Prescribed to treat bipolar disorder
Lithium
Solomon asch
Studies hope individuals conform to group pressure even when no explicit demand has been made to confirm
Length of lines study:
Muzafer sherif
Studied conformity in the autokinetic experiment where individuals rated an amount of light movement, noting members ratings changed when put into group setting
Foot in the door effect
Demonstrates a persons willingness to comply to a large request when first presented with a small one
Batson study
Examined helping behaviors
Margaret ainsworth
Strange situation
Strange situation
A procedure used to observe caregiver and child relationships. Observe children’s behavior as caregiver entered and exited.
Type A- insecure/avoidant
Type B- securely attached
Type C- insecure / resistant
John bowlby
Focused studies on children brought up in institutions such as orphanages
Diana baumrind
Conducted research on parenting style and discipline
Karen horney
Formulated a theory of neurosis
Carol Gilligan
Studied gender differences in morality
Walter mischel
Critic of trait theory
Research showed an individuals behavior is largely determined by the situation
Melanie Klein
Psychoanalyst who worked with children
Martin seligman
Theory of learned helplessness
Dorothea dix
Advocated for more human treatment for the mentally ill
Charles spearman
In favor of trait theories and pioneered the susodicha method of factor analysis
Narcissistic personality disorder
a mental condition in which people have an inflated sense of their own importance, a deep need for excessive attention and admiration, troubled relationships, and a lack of empathy for others
Borderline personality disorder
a mental health disorder that impacts the way you think and feel about yourself and others, causing problems functioning in everyday life. It includes self-image issues, difficulty managing emotions and behavior, and a pattern of unstable relationships.
Antisocial personality disorder
a particularly challenging type of personality disorder characterised by impulsive, irresponsible and often criminal behaviour. Someone with antisocial personality disorder will typically be manipulative, deceitful and reckless, and will not care for other people’s feelings.
Histrionic personality disorder
a mental health condition marked by unstable emotions, a distorted self-image and an overwhelming desire to be noticed. People with HPD often behave dramatically or inappropriately to get attention.
Schizotypal personality disorder
a mental health condition marked by a consistent pattern of intense discomfort with relationships and social interactions. People with STPD have unusual thoughts, speech and behaviors, which usually hinder their ability to form and maintain relationships.
Between subject designs
In a between-subjects design, or a between-groups design, every participant experiences only one condition, and you compare group differences between participants in various conditions. It’s the opposite of a within-subjects design, where every participant experiences every condition
Matched subject design
A matched subject design uses separate experimental groups for each particular treatment, but relies upon matching every subject in one group with an equivalent in another. The idea behind this is that it reduces the chances of an influential variable skewing the results by negating it
Within subject design
A within-subjects design is also called a dependent groups or repeated measures design because researchers compare related measures from the same participants between different conditions. All longitudinal studies use within-subjects designs to assess changes within the same individuals over time
Cross subjects design
A cross-sectional study is a type of research design in which you collect data from many different individuals at a single point in time. In cross-sectional research, you observe variables without influencing them
Only looked at individuals one time instead of a period of time
Interactional design
Interaction design (IxD) is the design of the interaction between the human and products. There is a psychology behind how users interact with digital products and services
Not a type of research design
Types of validity
Face validity
Tool measures content according to the lay-person
Content validity
Tool measures content according to an expert based on theory
Criterion validity
The criteria of the tool match other tools
Concurrent or Convergent Tool
gives similar scores as other tools on the same validity
Discriminant validity
Tool gives high scores for well people and low scores for sick people
Predictive validity
Tool predicts significant differences among different groups
Construct validity
Tool measures what it is supposed to
Internal validity
Measurement results warrant a causal conclusion.
Carl jung archetypes
Main 4:
Persona
The face we present to the world
The anima/ animus
the mirror image of our biological sex, that is, the unconscious feminine side in males and the masculine tendencies in women.
Shadow
This is the animal side of our personality (like the id in Freud).
Shelf
the self which provides a sense of unity in experience
Founder of operant conditioning
B f skinner
John Watson
Originated classical conditioning
Coined the term cognitive map
Edward tolman
Hawthorne effect
Phenomenon that occurs when subjects improve their behavior simply because they know they’re being assessed
Social loafing
Phenomenon that occurs when individuals make less of an effort when working in a group than they would if they were working alone
Bystander effect
Where individuals do not offer to help even there are several people present
Split brain
Severing corpus callosum in epilepsy
Fovea only contains one type of photoreceptors
Cones- responsible for color vision and perceiving fine detail
Ganglion cells
Are not photoreceptors cells
Group together to form optic nerve
Episodic and semantic memory are two types of
Declarative memory-part of long term memory responsible for remembering facts and events
Refers to our memory for facts and knowledge of external world, such as names of capital Corrie’s
Semantic memory
Part of sensory memory
Iconic memory
Zeigarnik effect
Refers to the increased recall memory in incomplete tasks versus complete tasks
Waiters remembered orders that were still open more than closed orders
Gestalt law refers to perceptual organization being as good as possible
Pragnanz: This law holds that when you’re presented with a set of ambiguous or complex objects, your brain will make them appear as simple as possible. 3 For example, when presented with the Olympic logo, you see overlapping circles rather than an assortment of curved, connected lines.
Closure
Proximity
Similarity
Continuation
Bottom up processing
Bottom-up processing begins with the retrieval of sensory information from our external environment to build perceptions based on the current input of sensory information
Top down processing
the interpretation of incoming information based on prior knowledge, experiences, and expectations
is typically a measure based on the correlations between different items on the same test (or the same subscale on a larger test). It measures whether several items that propose to measure the same general construct produce similar scores
Internal consistency
is determined by dividing the total set of items (e.g., questions) relating to a construct of interest into halves (e.g., odd-numbered and even-numbered questions) and comparing the results obtained from the two subsets of items thus created
Split half reliability
refers to the reproducibility or consistency of decisions between two reviewers and is a necessary component of validity
Inter rater reliability
Collectivism
the practice or principle of giving a group priority over each individual in it
the tendency to look at the world primarily from the perspective of one’s own culture.
Ethnocentrism
is the tendency, on the individual and societal level, to view oneself as interdependent, and a member of a group, rather than as an independent being
Collectivism
An individuals are responsible only for the care of their children and themselves
Individualism
in classical conditioning, a decrease in conditioning with one conditioned stimulus because of the presence of another conditioned stimulus.
Overshadowing
Usually a stronger stimulus will overshadow a weaker stimulus.
Overshadowing is when the first stimulus has no more stimulus control.
a phenomenon that occurs during an operant performance test when a conditioned response to a positive stimulus is reduced by another stimulus that is associated with an aversive stimulus
Conditioned suppression
the tendency to respond in the same way to different but similar stimuli
Generalization
the conditioning of an unwanted behavior or response to a stimulus into a wanted behavior or response by the association of positive actions with the stimulus
Counter conditioning
the phenomena whereby a previously extinguished association (such as a fear) returns after the unsignaled presentation of an unconditioned stimulus
Reinstatement
The idea that people cope with stress by moving toward people, away from people, or against people is most consistent with the views of
Karen horney
It allows us to distinguish between sounds, no matter how varied or similar they may be
B, p
L, r
Categorical perception
easy, slow-to-warm, and difficult. Easy children are generally happy, active children from birth and adjust easily to new situations and environments. Slow-to-warm children are generally mellow, less active babies from birth, and can have some difficulty adjusting to new situations. Difficult children have irregular habits and biological routines (e.g., eating, sleeping), have difficulty adjusting to new situations, and often express negative moods very intensely. As the category name suggests, these children are the most difficult for caregivers to satisfy and to maintain the energy and joy to care for on a daily basis.
Thomas and chess.
there are three general types of temperaments in children:
a cognitive system with a limited capacity that can hold information temporarily. Working memory is important for reasoning and the guidance of decision-making and behavior
Working memory
refers to the ability to reason and think flexibly.
Fluid intelligence
Increases with age
refers to the accumulation of knowledge, facts, and skills that are acquired throughout life.
Crystallized intelligence
a type of long-term memory involving the capacity to recall words, concepts, or numbers, which is essential for the use and understanding of language.
Least likely to decline in late life
Semantic memory
is the memory of everyday events that can be explicitly stated or conjured. It is the collection of past personal experiences that occurred at particular times and places; for example, the party on one’s 7th birthday.
Episodic memory
is the process that determines whether or not an action potential will be generated by the combined effects of excitatory and inhibitory signals,
2 types- Charles Scott sherrington
Temporal summation:
Rapid stimulation of a particular synapse which cumulative creates an action potential
Spatial summation:
Individual stimulation of different synapses that cumulatively creates an action potential
an uncommon side effect of certain medicines. People who develop this drug-induced movement disorder can’t control their facial movements
Tardive dyskinesia
Atypical developmental pattern characterized by stereotype motor responses and poor communication skills
Autism spectrum disorder
a developmental disorder that affects many parts of the body. This condition is characterized by mild to moderate intellectual disability or learning problems, unique personality characteristics, distinctive facial features, and heart and blood vessel (cardiovascular) problems.
Williams syndrome
a transient error in linguistic development in which the child attempts to make language more regular than it actually is. An example is saying breaked instead of broken. See also overextension; overgeneralization.
Overregularization
one of the single-word utterances characteristic of children in the early stages of language acquisition, such as dada or yes.
Holophrasing
the tendency of very young children to extend the use of a word beyond the scope of its specific meaning, such as by referring to all animals as “doggie
Overextension
the term used for the hypothesized mental process whereby a new concept is learned based only on minimal exposure to a given unit of information
Fast mapping
simply two-word sentences, such as “kitty tired” or “I hungry”. Toddlers develop this level of speech between 18-24 months.
Telegraphic speech
2 visual pathways
Cortical visual processing is commonly thought to proceed along two distinct pathways, a
dorsal pathway projecting into parietal cortex, and a
ventral pathway, projecting into temporal cortex
Solitary tract
The solitary tract (tractus solitarius, or fasciculus solitarius), is a compact fiber bundle that extends longitudinally through the posterolateral region of the medulla oblongata. The solitary tract is surrounded by the solitary nucleus, and descends to the upper cervical segments of the spinal cord
Theorist revised freuds stages of development, replacing Freuds psychosocial stages with psychosocial stages
Erik erikson
A measure of the variability of individual scores
Standard deviation of a sample of test scores
If a psychological disorder has a genetic basis, you would expect to find the highest concordance rate for the illness between
Identical twins
Freuds 3 psychoanalytic theory
the id is the primitive and instinctual part of the mind that contains sexual and aggressive drives and hidden memories,
the super-ego operates as a moral conscience, and
the ego is the realistic part that mediates between the desires of the id and the super-ego
the way mothers and infants interact plays a crucial role in infant growth and development. If care is adequate or “good enough,” children are able to develop their true selves, which is the part of the baby that is creative and spontaneous.
Object relations theory
a medical term used to describe a variety of conditions in which a person feels excessively tired or sleeps longer than usual.
Hypersomnolence
Baddeley hitch theory of working memory
If two tasks sing same component are done concurrently, performance will be impaired on one or both
Baddeley’s model argues that working memory is like a multi-part system, and each system is responsible for a different function. Each part is only able to processes so much and the components of this system, according to Baddeley, function more or less independently of one another.
First to study systematically and empirically study memory by developing an innovative appraise based on a consonant-vowel-consistent combinations
Herman ebbinghaus
the order or arrangement of words and phrases to form proper sentences.
Syntax
In linguistics and philosophy, the study of the use of natural language in communication; more generally, the study of the relations between languages and their users.
Pragmatics
Shared and non shared environments
The difference between shared and non-shared environments is that shared environments refer to common experiences between siblings such as living conditions, while non-shared refers to separate experiences such as friends, teachers, etc. which each sibling has independent of the other.
______ visual experience already a newborns gaze
Black and white pattern
Cannon and bard believed emotion and physiological arousal occurred ______ while James and Lange thought they happened _____
Simultaneously, sequentially
HPA axis
Hypothalamus, pituitary gland, adrenal gland
Estrus
Term used by comparative psychologist to refer to the period of time in which the female of the species is sexually receptive
Gestation
The period of time in which an unborn offspring is within its mother
Copulation
Sexual intercourse
Morpheme
The smallest unit of meaning in a word
Phoneme
A Sound in a word
Just noticeable difference
The smallest difference between two stimuli that allows them to be perceived as distinct stimuli
Physiological zero
The temperature that is perceived as neither hot nor cold
Dichotic listening tasks
First used by Broadbent to study selective attention
Dichotic listening task requires the subject to listen and shadow what they hear in one ear and ignore distracting information that enters the other ear
Phenotype
Observable characteristics
Two individuals can have the same phenotype but different genotypes
Genotype
. A key difference between phenotype and genotype is that, whilst genotype is inherited from an organism’s parents, the phenotype is not.
Whilst a phenotype is influenced the genotype, genotype does not equal phenotype
Door in the face phenomenon
The increased likelihood of complying with a small request after refusing to comply with a large request
Premack principal
A less favorable behavior or activity can be reinforced by a more favorable behavior activity
Neologism
Newly coined term
Heuristic
Rule of thumb used as a shortcut to reach a solution
Blind spot
The area where the optic nerve connects to the retina
There are no rods or cons in this area
Two point threshold
Refers to the amount of distance between two points necessary for each to be perceived as a distinct sensation
Freuds reality principle
Centers on delaying gratification
The reality principle emerges after the pleasure principle
Carl Rogers claimed the goal of psychotherapy was to achieve
Congruence
The myth of mental illness
Thomas Szasz
External locus of control
Someone who credits their success to luck and fate is exhibiting a personality characteristic known as
Internal locus of control
Someone who credits herself for her success or failure is demonstrating this
Nomothetic approach
Focuses on group and societal norms
Idiographic approach
Focuses on individual case studies
Lewins three tours of leadership styles
Autocratic, Democratic, laissez-faire
Inferiority complex
Alfred Adler
Sandra bem
Studied gender roles, androgyny
Subjects who score high in both masculinity and femininity skills of her personality inventory are classified as androgynous
William Sheldon three body types
Ectomorph
Endomorph
Mesomorph
Barnum effect
The term used for the tendency of individuals to agree with and accept personality interpretations that are provided
Girls better verbal ability than boys
Maccoby and jacklin
Nominal data
Refers to data that is grouped according to names of categories
Belief in a just world
How individuals make judgment based on underlying assumption that good things happen to good people and bad things happen to bad people
High variability means ____ variance while low variability means _____ balance
Large variance and large standard deviation; smaller variance and standard deviation
Opponent processing theory
The opponent process theory proposes that one member of the color pair suppresses the other color. For example, we do see yellowish-greens and reddish-yellows, but we never see reddish-green or yellowish-blue color hues.
They are:
blue versus yellow.
red versus green.
black versus white
Cerebellum
Responsible for smoothing movements and balance
Benzodiazepines
Benzodiazepines (BZD, BDZ, BZs), sometimes called “benzos” or “blues”, are a class of psychoactive drugs whose core chemical structure is the fusion of a benzene ring and a diazepine ring. As depressants—drugs which lower brain activity—they are prescribed to treat conditions such as anxiety, insomnia, and seizures.
Field theory
Kurt lewin
According to field theory, a person’s life is made up of multiple distinct spaces. Image 1 is an example of the total field, or environment. Image 2 is showing a person, and a goal they have. This image shows that there are forces pushing a person toward their goal.
Proxemics
Edward Hull
The study of how humans position themselves in space in relation to others.
Chronemics
The study of time in communication
Orthography
The definition of orthography is the practice of proper spelling, a way of spelling or a study of spelling
In behavioral finance, ___________ is the tendency for people to erroneously judge the likelihood of a situation by not taking into account all relevant data
Base rate fallacy
Cognitive dissonance
Leon Festinger
Cognitive dissonance is a theory in social psychology first proposed by Leon Festinger. According to this theory, cognitive dissonance describes the discomfort experienced when two cognitions are incompatible with each other
Opposition of functional fixedness
Divergent thinking
Extirpation (ablation)
The intentional lesioning or removing of regions of the brain
Type 1 error
When you say the true null hypothesis is false rejected but it’s actually true
Null hypothesis
The Hypothesis for our expected outcome
Type 2 error
When you say that the false null hypothesis is true but it’s actually false
Imprinting
Lorenz
Animals imprint on different species and even objects
Dissociative disorder
Dissociative disorders are mental disorders that involve experiencing a disconnection and lack of continuity between thoughts, memories, surroundings, actions and identity.
Schema
Piaget
A schema is an organized pattern of behaviors or thoughts
Metacognition
Thinking about thinking
Availability heuristic
The tendency to make decisions based on available data
Perseveration
The tendency to stay focused on certain thoughts for prolonged periods of time
Usually associated with schizophrenia
Robert Zajonc
Mere exposure research
