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Physio 2 - Peripheral Endocrine Glands > 1 > Flashcards

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1
Q

Where is calcitonin secreted from?

Why is it secreted?

And, what are its physiological roles or functions?

A
  • Secreted from the C cells of the thyroid gland, in response to increased plasma concentrations of calcium
  • Function: To decrease plasma concentrations of calcium by decreasing the movement of calcium from the bone fluid & by decreasing bone resorption (removal)
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2
Q

A deficiency in ____ impairs the intestinal absorption of calcium & leads to demineralized bone

And what is this condition called in children & adults?

A
  • Deficiency in vitamin D
  • In children: Rickets
  • In adults: Osteomalacia
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3
Q

What functions to increase the plasma concentrations of calcium by increasing calcium absorption from the digestive system & by increasing the bone’s responsiveness to the parathyroid hormone (PTH)?

A
  • Calcitriol
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4
Q

How is vitamin D obtained?

How is it activated?

And, what is the active form of it called?

A
  • Is obtained both from the diet & from the skin & must be activated by hepatic (liver) & renal (kidney) enzymes
  • The active form of vitamin D is called calcitriol
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5
Q

What results in hypocalcemia or low levels of plasma calcium?

And, what are the symptoms of said issue?

A
  • PTH hyposecretion (hypoparathyroidism)

- Symptoms include: Increased neuromuscular excitability & altered mental functioning

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6
Q

What results in hypercalcemia or high levels of plasma calcium?

And, what are the symptoms of said issue?

A
  • PTH hypersecretion (hyperparathyroidism)
  • Symptoms include: Muscle weakness, neurological disorders, cardiac & digestive system disturbances, bone thinning, & increased formation of kidney stones.
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7
Q

In the kidneys, what does the parathyroid hormone (PTH) increase? (2 things)

A
  • Increases calcium reabsorption & increases the activation of vitamin D
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8
Q

In bone, what does the parathyroid hormone (PTH) stimulate?

A
  • It stimulates calcium movement into the plasma from bone fluid & through bone resorption (removal)
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9
Q

What are the glands called that secrete the parathyroid hormone (PTH)?

Where are these said glands located?

Why is the PTH released?

And, what does it act on?

A
  • The parathyroid glands, which are located on the posterior surface of the thyroid gland
  • Is released in response to a decrease in plasma concentrations of calcium & acts directly on the bone, intestine, & kidneys to increase plasma concentrations of calcium
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10
Q

List the hormones that regulate calcium & influence calcium metabolism in the urinary, digestive, & skeletal systems

A
  • Parathyroid hormone (PTH), calcitriol (the active form of vitamin D), & calcitonin
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11
Q

Where are 99% & 0.9% of calcium stored in?

Where is the remainder of <0.1% of calcium present in and how is it regulated?

A
  • 99% stored in bone and teeth
  • 0.9% stored in soft tissue
  • <0.1% present in the ECF, and is regulated by the hormones that influence calcium metabolism in the urinary, digestive, & skeletal systems
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12
Q

What are the physiological roles of calcium in the body?

List all 6 functions

A
  • It is involved in, neuromuscular excitability,
  • Muscle contraction,
  • Exocytosis of secretory products,
  • Maintenance of tight junctions,
  • Blood clotting,
  • & bone formation.
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13
Q

What is the physiological function of growth hormone in muscle & plasma concentrations?

A
  • It exerts a protein anabolic effect in muscle & also increases plasma concentrations of glucose & fatty acids
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14
Q

What are the hormones called that are important in general adaptation syndrome & the mobilization of energy stores?

And what are their physiological functions?

A
  • Epinephrine & cortisol
  • Physiological function of both: To increase the plasma concentrations of glucose & fatty acid
  • Physiological function of cortisol only: To increase the plasma concentrations of amino acids
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15
Q

Insulin & glucagon work together to accomplish what physiological task?

And how do they operate in low & high blood glucose levels?

(Hint: Beta cells & alpha cells)

A
  • To keep the concentration of glucose in the plasma within the normal range
  • In high blood glucose, beta cells increase insulin secretion & alpha cells decrease the secretion of glucagon, resulting in lowering the blood glucose levels to normal range
  • In low blood glucose, beta cells decrease insulin secretion & alpha cells increase the secretion of glucagon, resulting in increasing the blood glucose levels to normal range
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16
Q

Glucagon secretion is decreased in the absorptive state in response to?

A
  • Increased concentrations of plasma glucose.
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17
Q

Glucagon secretion is increased in the postabsorptive state in response to?

A
  • Decreased plasma concentrations of glucose, increased plasma concentrations of amino acids & epinephrine, & increased SNS activity.
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18
Q

What is insulin?

Where is it secreted from?

And, what are its primary functions?

A
  • Is an anabolic hormone secreted by the beta cells of the endocrine pancreas
  • Functions: To decrease plasma concentrations of glucose, amino acids, & fatty acids.
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19
Q

What does insulin deficiency effect?

A
  • Effects carbohydrate, fat & protein metabolism
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20
Q

Type __ diabetes mellitus is due to a reduced sensitivity of the target cells to the actions of insulin, despite normal levels of insulin

A
  • Type 2 diabetes mellitus
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21
Q

Type __ diabetes mellitus is due to a lack of insulin secretion by the Beta (β) cells of the pancreas

A
  • Type 1 diabetes mellitus
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22
Q

What is the only hormone called that decreases the plasma concentrations of glucose?

And, what occurs in the absence of said hormone?

A
  • Insulin
  • As may occur in diabetes mellitus, plasma concentrations of glucose remain elevated (hyperglycemia), & numerous physiological problems arise
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23
Q

Insulin secretion is decreased in the postabsorptive state in response to?

A
  • By increased SNS activity, increased epinephrine secretion, & decreased plasma concentrations of glucose
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24
Q

Insulin secretion is increased in the absorptive state in response to?

A
  • Increased PNS activity, increased glucose-dependent insulinotropic peptide (GIP) secretion, & increased plasma concentrations of glucose & amino acids.
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25
Q

What is insulin?

Where is it secreted from?

And, what are its primary functions?

A
  • An anabolic hormone is secreted by the beta β cells of the endocrine pancreas
  • Functions: To decrease plasma concentrations of glucose, amino acids, & fatty acids.
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26
Q

What regulates the metabolic reactions of the absorptive & postabsorptive states?

Name the primary & additional regulatory hormones involved

A
  • The endocrine system through hormones
  • Primary 2 hormones are insulin & glucagon
  • But, epinephrine, cortisol, & growth hormone also play significant roles
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27
Q

What is synthesized in the liver by fatty acid catabolism during periods of glucose sparing?

And how are they used to generate ATP?

A
  • Ketone bodies
  • In cells other than those of the liver, ketone bodies enter the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle & are used to generate ATP
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28
Q

What is produced during muscle glycolysis?

And how is it converted to glucose?

A
  • Lactic acid

- Can also be converted into glucose by the liver.

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29
Q

What is derived from triglyceride hydrolysis?

And how is it converted to glucose?

A
  • Glycerol

- Can be converted to glucose by the liver

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30
Q

What do the other sources of energy other than glucose, fatty acids, & amino acids include ?

A
  • Glycerol, lactic acid, & ketone bodies
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31
Q

What occurs in between meals when no nutrients are being absorbed?

And, what is the mechanism of actions that occurs in this state?

A
  • The metabolic postabsorptive state
  • During this period, energy stores are mobilized, & plasma glucose levels are maintained primarily to supply the brain with the required glucose
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32
Q

What occurs during the period of digestion & absorption of nutrients following a meal?

And what is the mechanism of actions that occurs in this state?

A
  • The metabolic absorptive state
  • During this period, glucose is the primary source of energy, & excess nutrients that are not being directly used by the cells of the body are stored
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33
Q

Given that food intake is intermittent, what are the two metabolic states?

A
  • Absorptive & posabsorptive states
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34
Q

Which part of the body must be continually supplied glucose to meet its metabolic demands because it is unable to use amino acids or fatty acids to produce adenosine triphosphate (ATP)?

A
  • The brain
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35
Q

Why is the storage of nutrients (carbs,proteins,&fatty acids) an important part of fuel metabolism?

A
  • Because the cells of the body have a constant requirement for nutrients, even though the ingestion of food is periodic
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36
Q

What occurs to carbs, proteins, and fatty acids following digestion & absorption?

A
  • They are either used directly by the cells as a source of energy or are stored for future use
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37
Q

What specifically refers to the degradation of molecules?

A
  • Catabolism
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38
Q

What specifically refers to the synthesis of molecules?

A
  • Anabolism
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39
Q

What refers to all the chemical reactions involved in the degradation, synthesis, & transformation of nutrients (carbohydrates, proteins, & fatty acids)?

A
  • Fuel metabolism or intermediary metabolism
40
Q

What is the role of the hypothalamus in the integration of the stress response?

(hint: which 2 body systems does it integrate)

A
  • In response to a stressor, the hypothalamus integrates the responses of the endocrine system & the SNS
41
Q

What is the general adaptation syndrome coordinated by?

And, what are its physiological functions?

A
  • Coordinated by the hypothalamus
  • Functions to prepare the body for fight or flight, mobilizing energy stores, & maintaining blood volume & blood pressure
42
Q

What is the other name for stress called?

What does it involve?

And, how does that involvement affect the secretion of other hormones?

A
  • General adaptation syndrome, involving increased SNS activity
  • Leads to increased secretion of epinephrine, glucagon, & aldosterone & also involves increased cortisol secretion (through increased corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) & adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) secretion) & increased vasopressin secretion.
43
Q

In a stress response, what is that factor that disrupts or threatens to disrupt homeostasis called? And, what can these factors be? (list all 6 of them)

A
  • A stressor
  • Can be physical (e.g., trauma), chemical (e.g., acid-base imbalance), physiological (e.g., exercise), infectious (e.g., bacterial), psychological (e.g., anxiety), or social (e.g., lifestyle changes).
44
Q

What is a a generalized, non-specific response of the body to a factor that disrupts or threatens to disrupt homeostasis?

A
  • Stress
45
Q

Which actions do epinephrine mimic, and which response does it mediate?

Also, what are its physiological functions of it?

A
  • Mimics SNS activity & mediates the “Fight-or-Flight” response
  • Physiological functions include: Maintaining arterial bp, increasing plasma concentrations of glucose, increasing the metabolic rate, & stimulating the CNS
46
Q

In response to an increase in SNS activity, what do the secretory cells of the adrenal medulla release? (% as well)

A
  • Secretory cells release: catecholamines, which consist of about 80% epinephrine, about 20% norepinephrine, and less than 1% dopamine.
47
Q

What is a modified part of the SNS activity?

A
  • The adrenal medulla
48
Q

What does a reproductive hormone deficienncy disrupt?

A
  • Homeostasis of the body
49
Q

What results from decreased Adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) secretion?

What does it affect? (hormones involved)

And what are the symptoms?

A
  • Secondary adrenocortical insufficiency
  • It affects the adrenal cortex’s secretion of both cortisol & reproductive hormones
  • Symptoms: Impaired stress response & hypoglycemia
50
Q

What is primary adrenocortical insufficiency also called?

What does it involve?

And what is the most serious physiological consequence of this insufficiency? (leading to…)

A
  • Addison’s disease
  • Involving autoimmune-mediated destruction of all cortical layers
  • The deficiency of aldosterone, which results in hyperkalemia, leading to cardiac arrhythmias & hyponatremia, leading to hypotension.
51
Q

What occurs when the activity of both of the adrenal glands is impaired?

A
  • Hyposecretion of the adrenal cortical hormones
52
Q

What is reproductive hormone hypersecretion called?

And, what does it result from

A
  • Adrenogenital syndrome

- Resulting from an enzymatic defect in the cortisol synthesis pathway

53
Q

How is the secretion of dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) regulated?

And, how is it different from cortisol secretion regulation?

(hint: feedback to …)

A
  • By the adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH) in a manner similar to ACTH regulation of cortisol secretion
  • However, rather than feeding back to inhibit corticotropin-releasing hormone (CRH)…
  • The dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA) hormone, like androgens from the testes, feeds back to inhibit the gonadotropin-releasing hormone (GnRH).
54
Q

In adult females, what is responsible for the androgen-dependent processes that occur?

And, what is included in those processes?

A
  • Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA)

- Including: Body hair growth, the pubertal growth spurt, and the development & maintenance of the sex drive.

55
Q

In males, what is the sole source of androgens?

A
  • The reproductive gonads supply an abundance of androgens
56
Q

In females, what is the sole source of androgens?

A
  • Adrenal cortex
57
Q

What is the only reproductive (sex) hormone of physiological significance produced by the adrenal cortex called?

A
  • Dehydroepiandrosterone (DHEA).
58
Q

What are the hormones called that the adrenal cortex produces in small quantities in both males
& females?

A
  • Estrogens & androgens
59
Q

What can result from increased secretion of corticotrophin-releasing hormone (CRH) or of adrenocorticotropic hormone (ACTH), or from cortisol-secreting tumours or non-pituitary ACTH-secreting tumours?

A
  • Cortisol hypersecretion, referred to as Cushing’s syndrome
60
Q

What is the primary glucocorticoid produced by the adrenal cortex called?

What are its physiological functions?

And what regulates its secretion?

A
  • Cortisol
  • Plays a key role in the body’s adaptations to stress, which includes metabolic effects that are responsible for increasing plasma levels of glucose, sympathomimetic, anti-inflammatory, & immunosuppressive effects.
  • Regulation: By the hypothalamus-anterior pituitary-adrenal cortex pathway
61
Q

What does secondary hyperaldosteronism result from?

And provide an example of such condition

A
  • Results from excessive stimulation of the adrenal cortex

- Such as from continual stimulation of the RAAS.

62
Q

What is primary hyperaldosteronism referred to as? And, what does it result from?

A
  • Is referred to as Conn’s syndrome

- Results from excessive production of aldosterone from the adrenal cortex

63
Q

What is the primary mineralocorticoid produced by the adrenal cortex called?

Describe said mineralocorticoid’s physiological function.

And, how is its secretion regulated?

A
  • Aldosterone, Acts primarily on the kidney to increase sodium ion (Na+) reabsorption & potassium ion (K+) secretion
  • Secretion is regulated by: The renin-angiotensin-aldosterone system (RAAS) & by plasma concentrations of Potassium (K+)
64
Q

Which layers of the adrenal cortex are the adrenocortical hormones secreted from?

(mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, & sex hormones)

A
  • Mineralocorticoids are secreted from the zona glomerulosa

- Glucocorticoids & the reproductive (sex) hormones are secreted both from the zona fasciculata & the zona reticularis

65
Q

List the 3 classes of adrenocortical hormones.

And, how does the adrenal cortex secrete these different hormones?

A
  • Mineralocorticoids, glucocorticoids, & sex hormones
  • The cells of each region of the adrenal cortex contain different enzymes that enable the production of their respective hormones.
66
Q

What are the hormones called that the adrenal cortex secretes? And, where are they derived from?

A
  • Adrenocortical hormones, all of which are derived from cholesterol.
67
Q

Name the 3 layers of the adrenal cortex

A
  • zona glomerulosa
  • zona fasciculata
  • zona reticularis
68
Q

What does each adrenal gland consist of?

A
  • Each consists of an adrenal cortex & adrenal medulla
69
Q

Describe the adrenal glands

A
  • They are the endocrine organs that reside above each of the kidneys
70
Q

How is a goiter caused by hyperthyroidism exist?

And what does it lead to?

A
  • Either Graves’ disease or increased synthesis of TSH, which leads to excessive stimulation of growth of the thyroid gland
71
Q

What occurs in a goiter caused by hypothyroidism?

A
  • Low levels of the thyroid hormones decrease the negative feedback to the anterior pituitary and, in consequence, increased amounts of TSH are produced.
72
Q

What will excess Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) stimulate?

A
  • Stimulate both hypertrophy (increased cell size) & hyperplasia (increased cell numbers) of the thyroid gland
73
Q

Why is an appropriate level of Thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH) necessary?

A
  • To maintain the structural integrity of the thyroid gland.
74
Q

Describe what a goiter is, and what it can result from

A
  • Is an enlarged thyroid gland

- Can result from hypothyroidism or hyperthyroidism

75
Q

What is an autoimmune disease resulting from immunoglobulin stimulation of TSH receptors?

Describe this form of hyperthyroidism & describe its classic symptom

A
  • Graves’ disease, the most common form of hyperthyroidism

- Symptom: Exophthalmos (in which the eyes bulge forward due to fluid retention behind the eyes)

76
Q

What can result from Graves’ disease, an excess of TRH and, or TSH, or a hypersecreting thyroid tumour?

What are the symptoms & treatment for the said condition?

A
  • Hyperthyroidism (underactive thyroid).
  • Symptoms: Increased metabolic rate, poor tolerance to heat, increased appetite, decreased weight gain, cardiovascular abnormalities, & altered mental functioning.
  • Treatment: By surgically removing part of the oversecreting thyroid gland or by destroying a part of it by applying radioactive iodine.
77
Q

What is the medical condition called resulting from hypothyroidism present at birth?

And, what does it result in?

A
  • Cretinism

- Resulting in the retardation of both physical growth & mental development.

78
Q

What can result from an abnormality in the thyroid gland, a deficiency of thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) &, or thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH), or an inadequate supply of iodine?

What are the symptoms of the said condition?

And, how is it treated?

A
  • Hypothyroidism (underactive thyroid)
  • Symptoms: Myxedema (swelling of the face, hands, and feet), decreased metabolic rate, weight gain, fatigue, weak pulse, decreased mental functioning, & poor tolerance to cold.
  • Treatment: By thyroid hormone replacement therapy or dietary iodine.
79
Q

List the thyroid hormones functions

A
  • Are the primary determinant of the metabolic rate
  • Exert calorigenic & sympathomimetic effects
  • Alter fuel metabolism & cardiac function
  • & essential for normal growth & development of the nervous system
80
Q

What needs to occur for T4 to exert its physiological function?

A
  • T4 in the plasma is converted by the liver & kidney into the more active T3 form
81
Q

What is the most abundant thyroid hormone, but the least active form?

A
  • T4
82
Q

Describe the hypothalamus-anterior pituitary- thyroid gland pathway.

Basically how T3 & T4 are released.

A
  • Stress inhibits the hypothalamus & cold in infants stimulates the hypothalamus
  • Thyrotropin-releasing hormone (TRH) is released, stimulating the anterior pituitary gland
  • Which releases the thyroid-stimulating hormone (TSH). As a result, the thyroid gland is stimulated
  • Releasing the thyroid hormones (T3 & T4)
83
Q

How is the secretion of the thyroid hormones (T3 & T4) regulated?

A
  • Through the hypothalamus-anterior pituitary- thyroid gland pathway
84
Q

Describe the mechanism of action of thyroid hormone secretion

A
  • Thyroglobulin (TGB)-containing colloid enters into the follicular cells through phagocytosis
  • Lysosomes separate the iodinated products (T3 & T4) from the TGB
  • T3 and T4 diffuse into the blood
  • The iodine is removed from monoiodotyrosine (MIT) & diiodotyrosine (DIT) & moved back to the colloid for the synthesis of more thyroid hormone (reuse)
85
Q

How does the secretion of thyroid hormones occur after the coupling of MIT & or DITs?

A
  • It occurs through the phagocytosis of the thyroglobulin-containing colloid by the follicular cells
86
Q

What does the coupling of one diiodotyrosine (DIT) and one monoiodotyrosine (MIT) yield?

A
  • It yields triiodothyronine (T3)
87
Q

What does the coupling of two diiodotyrosine (DITs) yield?

A
  • It yields tetraiodothyronine (thyroxine or T4)
88
Q

What is produced when two iodines are attached to the tyrosine within the thyroglobulin molecule?

A
  • This produces a diiodotyrosine (DIT) molecule
89
Q

What is produced when one iodine is attached to the tyrosine within the thyroglobulin molecule?

A
  • This produces a monoiodotyrosine (MIT) molecule
90
Q

What is used to synthesize thyroglobulin inside the follicular cells?

What is the sequence of events that occurs following the synthesis of thyroglobulin?

A
  • The amino acid tyrosine
  • Thyroglobulin, along with iodine obtained from the diet, is transported into the colloid, where the iodine is then attached to the tyrosine within the thyroglobulin
91
Q

What are the names of the 2 thyroid hormones?

A
  • Triiodothyronine (T3) & Tetraiodothyronine (T4 or thyroxine)
92
Q

What is a peptide hormone involved in calcium metabolism?

A
  • Calcitonin, a secretant by C cells
93
Q

Describe the arrangement & function of C cells.

A
  • They are interspersed between the follicles

- Function: Responsible for the secretion of calcitonin

94
Q

Describe the arrangement & function of follicular cells

A
  • Are arranged into sphere-like structures (called follicles) that are filled with colloid
  • Function: Are involved in the secretion of the thyroid hormones
95
Q

What are the names of the 2 types of endocrine cells that are contained within the thyroid gland?

A
  • Follicular cells & C cells

Physio 2 - Peripheral Endocrine Glands (1 decks)

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