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Question 1

What may result from excessive vomiting, or the ingestion of alkaline drugs? And, how is it counteracted?

Answer 1

• Metabolic alkalosis
• In addition to chemical buffering, both respiratory and renal compensation are used to counteract these changes in plasma pH

Question 2

What may result from Severe Diarrhea, Diabetes Mellitus, Strenuous Exercise, or Uremic Acidosis? And, how is it counteracted?

Answer 2

• Metabolic acidosis
• In addition to chemical buffering, both respiratory and renal compensation are used to counteract these changes in plasma pH

Question 3

What is due to an decreased plasma concentration of carbon dioxide and is caused by hyperventilation? Also, how is it counteracted?

Answer 3

• Respiratory alkalosis

- Renal compensation is used to counteract these changes in plasma pH, in addition to chemical buffering

Question 4

What is due to an increased plasma concentration of carbon dioxide and is caused by hypoventilation? Also, how is it counteracted?

Answer 4

• Repiratory acidosis

- Renal compensation is used to counteract these changes in plasma pH, in addition to chemical buffering

Question 5

How do metabolic imbalances occur?

Answer 5

• Result from changes to pH through means not related to Carbon Dioxide concentrations

Question 6

How do respiratory imbalances occur?

Answer 6

• Result from changes in carbon dioxide concentrations

Question 7

How are acid imbalances categorized?

Answer 7

• They are categorized as respiratory acidosis, respiratory alkalosis, metabolic acidosis, and metabolic alkalosis

Question 8

What would occur if a decrease in pH occurred in renal compensation?

Answer 8

• It will result in an increased secretion of Hydrogen ions, an increased reabsorption of Bicarbonate ion (HCO3–), and an increased synthesis of Bicarbonate ion (HCO3–).

Question 9

What is the third line of defense against acid-base disturbances and occurs within hours to days? And, how does it work?

Answer 9

• Renal compensation, regulates pH through changes to Hydrogen ion Excretion to Bicarbonate ion (HCO3–) Excretion, and Ammonium (NH₄⁺) Secretion in the Urine.

Question 10

How is the plasma pH decreased due to respiratory compensation?

Answer 10

• Through decreases in ventilation, resulting in an increase in plasma concentration of carbon dioxide (CO₂), which subsequently increases the plasma concentrations of hydrogen ions, and decreases the plasma pH

Question 11

How is the plasma pH increased due to respiratory compensation?

Answer 11

• Through increases ventilation, resulting in a decrease in plasma concentration of carbon dioxide (CO₂), which subsequently decreases the plasma concentration of hydrogen ions, and increasing the plasma pH

Question 12

What is the second line of defense against acid-base disturbances and occurs within minutes? And, how does it work?

Answer 12

• Respiratory compensation, and it regulates pH through changes in ventilation

Question 13

What are the most important chemical buffers in the ICF?

Answer 13

• Proteins, hemoglobin, and phosphates

Question 14

What are the most important chemical buffers in the ECF?

Answer 14

• They are the carbonic acid & bicarbonate buffer pair —> H2CO3↔ HCO3– + H+

Question 15

Describe the chemical buffering mechanism of action

Answer 15

• Upon coming into contact with a chemical buffer system, acids and bases spontaneously undergo the associated reactions

Question 16

What is the first line of defense against acid-base disturbances and occurs within seconds? And, how does it work?

Answer 16

Chemical buffering, it works by minimizing changes in pH by adding or removing an acid or base from solution.

Question 17

How is the chemical buffering system different from the renal & respiratory compensation systems?

Answer 17

• Chemical buffering systems are always present, always available, and always being used
• Whereas Respiratory compensation & Renal compensation are feedback loops involving multiple steps and multiple body systems

Question 18

List the 3 body defense mechanism against acid-base distubances

Answer 18

• Chemical buffering, respiratory compensation, and renal compensation.

Question 19

What is the pH range that is compatible with life?

Answer 19

• 6.8 to 8.0

Question 20

What are the consequences if the pH of arterial blood is outside the normal pH range? (7.35 to 7.45)

Answer 20

• There would be changes in the excitablibilty of neurons and muscle cells, changes in protein conformation, and changes in potassium balance.
• Interfering with the normal cell functioning

Question 21

What is the normal pH of arterial blood? And, how is it regulated?

Answer 21

• The normal pH of arterial blood is between 7.35 to 7.45

- It is regulated through there homeostatic maintenance of hydrogen ions in the arterial blood

Question 22

What is the pH value of an basic or alkaline solution?

Answer 22

• A pH of more than 7

Question 23

What is the pH value of an acidic solution?

Answer 23

• A pH of less than 7

Question 24

How is the acid-base balance achieved?

Answer 24

• It is achieved through the regulation of hydrogen ions (H+) concentrations in body fluids

Question 25

What are psychosocial factors? And, how do they influence water balance?

Answer 25

- Such as habits or social engagements, which influence water balance, irrespective of thirst or vasopressin secretion

Question 26

How does the dryness of the oral cavity influence the water balance?

Answer 26

- It stimulates thirst but doesn't influence vasopressin secretion

Question 27

What are stressors? And, how do they influence water balance?

Answer 27

- Such as pain, fear, & trauma; that increase vasopressin secretion, but do not influence thirst.

Question 28

List some of the other regulators influences on water balance

Answer 28

- Stressors, dryness of the oral cavity, & psychosocial factors

Question 29

What occurs in response to a water deficit in the body?

Answer 29

- Both thirst and vasopressin secretion would be stimulated (water input & output regulators). - This is achieved through the coordination of the Hypothalamic osmoreceptors, the left Atrial Volume Receptors, and Angiotensin II.

Question 30

How is water output regulated?

Answer 30

- By regulating the tubular reabsorption of water in the Kidneys, which is mediated by the actions of vasopressin secretions

Question 31

How is water input regulated?

Answer 31

- By thirst, which is coordinated by the thirst centre of the hypothalamus (hypothalamic osmoreceptors)

Question 32

How is the water balance regulated?

Answer 32

- It is maintained through the regulation of the water input & output

Question 33

What is included in the insesible loss of water category ?

Answer 33

- It includes water output from the lungs (through respiration) & from non-sweating skin (through evaporation)

Question 34

How is the daily water output calculated?

Answer 34

- It occurs through perispiration, fecal & urinary loss, and insensible water loss

Question 35

How is the daily water input calculated?

Answer 35

- It occurs through ingestion of fluids & food, and also through the metabolic production of water

Question 36

What are the symptoms and effects of hypotonicity?

Answer 36

- Neuronal changes resulting in altered mental functioning, circulatory disturbances resulting in hypertension, & muscle weakness

Question 37

What are the symptoms and effects of hypertonicity?

Answer 37

- Neuronal changes resulting in altered mental functioning, circulatory disturbances resulting in hypotension, and anatomic changes resulting in dry skin, sunken eyeballs, & dry tongue

Question 38

What can result from renal failure, inappropriate levels of vasopressin secretion, or a rapid Ingestion of excessive amounts of water?

Answer 38

- Hypotonicity

Question 39

What can result from an insufficient water intake, an excessive water loss, or from diabetes mellitus

Answer 39

- Hypertonicity

Question 40

What are the effects of an hypertonic solution on RBCs?

Answer 40

- The extracellular water concentration is lower than the intracellular water concentration and there is a net movement of water out of the cell causing the cell to shrink.

Question 41

What are the effects of an hypotonic solution on RBCs?

Answer 41

- The extracellular water concentration is higher than the intracellular water concentration and there is a net movement of water into the cell causing the cell to swell

Question 42

What are the effects of an isotonic solution on RBCs?

Answer 42

- In an isotonic solution the intracellular and extracellular water concentrations are the same and there is an equal and opposite movement of water across the membrane

Question 43

What results from an excess of water in the ECF? And provide an example of this situation

Answer 43

- A hypotonic cellular environment, | - Associated with overhydration

Question 44

What results from a deficit of water in the ECF? And provide an example of this situation

Answer 44

- A hypertonic cellular environment, | - Associated with dehydration

Question 45

What leads to a change in osmolarity?

Answer 45

- A change in water balance not accompanied by a corresponding change in salt balance

Question 46

What is the term that refers to a measure of the concentration of an individual solute particles dissolved in a fluid?

Answer 46

- Osmolarity

Question 47

What happens when the arterial blood pressure experiences a decrease, and how does that effect the renal handling of sodium (Na+)?

Answer 47

- A decrease in BP influces both GFR & the secretion of aldosterone. As a result, Na+ excretion is decreased & Na+ conservation is increased, thus restoring the BP

Question 48

How is the conservation or excretion of salt regulated ?

Answer 48

-Through regulating GFR & the tubular reabsorption of sodium (Na+)

Question 49

How is the salt balance regulated?

Answer 49

- Salt balance is only regulated via the kidneys through urinary loss

Question 50

Define salt output, and how many g/day is it?

Answer 50

- Occurs through perspiration and fecal & urine excretion. - Feces & loss in sweat = 0.5 g/day & 10.0 g/day is excreted in urine Total salt output is = 10.5 g/day

Question 51

Define salt input, and how many g/day is it?

Answer 51

- Salt input occurs only through ingestion | - 10.5 g/day

Question 52

Why is the maintenance of ECF osmolarity important?

Answer 52

- For the maintenance of an isotonic cellular environment, and is dependent on water balance

Question 53

Why is the maintenance of ECF volume important?

Answer 53

- For the maintenance of the blood pressure, and it is dependent on the salt balance

Question 54

How is fluid balance regulated?

Answer 54

- Through the regulation of the ECF volume and osmolarity

Question 55

What is fluid balance in the body dependent on?

Answer 55

- On water and salt balance

Question 56

Why do different fluid compartments have different ionic compositions?

Answer 56

- They have different ionic compositions due to the barriers that separate them, such as the blood vessel walls & the plasma membrane of cells

Question 57

How many litres of bodily fluids does the ICF represent (% as well)?

Answer 57

- 28 litres or 67% of total body fluids

Question 58

What types of fluids are included in the ECF? And, how many litres of bodily fluids does it represent (% as well)?

Answer 58

- It includes: Plasma, lymph, interstitial fluid, and transcellular fluids - Accounting for 14 litres or 33% of total body fluid

Question 59

Where are the fluids in the body located in?

Answer 59

- In the ECF & ICF

Question 60

What is the term that refers to when the output exceeds input?

Answer 60

- A negative balance

Question 61

What is the term that refers to when the input exceeds output?

Answer 61

- A positive balance

Question 62

What is the term that is referred to a substance with equal input and output?

Answer 62

- Stable balance

Question 63

What does output from the body include?

Answer 63

- It includes metabolic consumption & excretion

Question 64

What does input into the body include?

Answer 64

- It includes metabolic production & ingestion