1-10 Flashcards
How does the body produce energy?
Energy released during the breakdown of glucose and other molecules to CO2 and H2O is released gradually to form Energy containing packets of ATP molecules. ATP is then used as a energy source and driving many biochemical reactions.
What are the two forms of energy storage for ATP?
Glycogen and triglycerides.
What is the general principle pertaining to the direction of chemical reactions?
Chemical reactions proceed in that direction which the bonds are more stable and in which energy is released.
“Energy is released is unstable bonds are broken and more stable ones are formed”
Reducing agent
Supplies hydrogen atoms or electrons in chemical reactions.
-examples: NADH, NADPH, FADH2
Oxidizing agent
Receives hydrogen atoms or electrons
First law of thermodynamics
The conservation of energy: the total energy on one side of an equation equals the total energy on the other side of the equation.
Energy can neither be created nor destroyed
Second law of thermodynamics
Things tend to proceed from the state of order to a state of disorder.
- entropy being a term used to describe the degree of disorder.
- Low entropy to high entropy
Enzyme
Special proteins that catalyze chemical reactions.
Oxidative phosphorylation
Oxidation by a series of reactions requiring 02 at the end COUPLED WITH phosphorylation of ADP to ATP.
Describe how chemical reactions in the human body seem to conflict with the first and second law of thermodynamics as well as how they do comply?
Chemical reactions often perceived from simple molecules two more complex ones.
The body grows and is maintained versus the case. Appears to be greater order then disorder.
Although chemical synthesis proceeds partly to produce greater order, and structure and function, they are accompanied by an even greater disorder produced in the dissipation of energy.
Determinants of the rate of chemical reactions in the body
Energy of activation, temperature, concentration of substrate, and concentration of product.
Why do two-way enzymatic reactions not compete against one another?
The reactions each way are different, containing different substrates depending on the direction, each way uses a different enzyme.
What is the mechanism behind malignant hyperthermia?
When two-way reactions inappropriately simultaneously occur in the human body, with excess heat production to the extent of death.
What are the differences between enzymes and hormones in chemical reactions?
Enzyme – control the reaction rate
Poor man’s – directly or indirectly affect the degree of enzyme synthesis or activation
List the key fuel that runs the main powerhouse Ferris wheel (Krebs cycle)
Acetyl CoA which is formed when glucose is broken in half
What is the key fuel produced by the Krebs cycle?
Adenosine triphosphate
What are the key elements needed to run the Krebs cycle?
Oxygen because without it oxidative phosphorylation could not occur in the fermentation process would be the result yielding carbon dioxide and lactic acid.
What is the total number of ATP molecules generated by glycolysis and the Krebs cycle combined?
36.
Glycolysis – uses two, produces four, equals two total
Krebs/Oxidative Phosphorylation - 30 total
Glycerol 3 Phosphate Shuttle - 4 total
What is the source of energy for the Krebs cycle during periods of starvation?
Amino acids: this is however bad because it leads to the breakdown of important proteins.
What is the difference between anaerobic and aerobic metabolism?
If there’s not enough 02, you need a way to replenish NAD+. There’s no oxidative phosphorylation so, pyruvate transforms to lactate. If anaerobic, then only 2 ATP are made.
What organ systems are involved in glycolysis process of the main power house?
Occurs throughout the body.
What organ systems are involved in Gluconeogenesis of the main power house?
Mainly liver, sometimes the kidneys.
List the sections of biochemistry and the intracellular organs were they occur.
Nucleus – DNA and RNA synthesis.
Cytosol – glycolysis, protein synthesis, HMP shunt, part of gluconeogenesis, fatty acid synthesis.
Golgi Apparatus- synthesis (glycosylation) and packaging of complex molecules including glycolipids, glycoproteins and lipoproteins, carbohydrates synthesis.
Mitochondria – crib cycle, fatty acid oxidation, formation of acetyl CoA, part of gluconeogenesis.
List the chemical formula for glucose
C6H12O2
What are the four types of carbohydrates?
Monosaccharides – Carbohydrates that cannot be hydrolyzed into simple carbohydrates, they contain 3,4,5,6 carbons. (Fructose, glucose, galactose)
Disaccharides – combinations of two monosaccharides (maltose glucose + glucose) (sucrose glucose + fructose) (lactose glucose + galactose)
Oligosaccharides- contain 3-6 monosaccharides
Polysaccharides- contain more than 6 monosaccharides
Describe the importance of ribose in the penthouse powerhouse of Hydrate land in the HMP shunt
Ribose is an important component of nucleotides like ATP DNA and RNA; it is also part of NADH, FAD, and the CoA of acetyl-CoA; ribose can be converted to glyceraldehyde 3-phosphate.
List three important functions of carbohydrates in the body
- Storage in generation of energy
- Important structural components, both intracellular and extracellular (glycolipids)
- Maybe transformed into other, totally different kinds of molecules, like amino acids lipids and nucleic acids.
- when carbohydrates attached to proteins and lipids a form glycolipids and glycoproteins.
What are the enzymes required to break down glycogen into the form of glucose that can be used by the body, and identify were each is located?
- Phosphorylase – liver and muscle
- Salivary and pancreatic amylase – G.I. tract
- Lysosomal alpha–glucosidase – all cells throughout the body
What is the product of phosphorylase reaction of glycogen breakdown?
Glucose – 1 – P
What is the product of the amylase reaction of glycogen breakdown?
Maltose to maltase. Which can then be broken down later into glucose.
Describe the function of insulin in the body
Insulin is an anabolic hormone that signals the fed state.
- it reacts to feeding by clearing the blood of glucose, storing fuel, and promoting glycogen, fatty acid, and protein synthesis.
- it stimulates glycolysis and inhibits gluconeogenesis, the silicates entry of glucose into muscle and fat cells decreasing blood glucose.
Describe the function of epinephrine and glucagon, and identify where each is located
Epinephrine – more effective in muscle
Glucagon – more effective and liver
They are both hormones that promote glycogen breakdown, acting opposite to Enslin; restore blood glucose levels by and Hanson glycogen breakdown, decreasing glycogen synthesis, decreasing glycolysis and fatty acid synthesis and stimulating gluconeogenesis.
Describe the function of glucuronate and product of carbohydrate land
They can join with drugs, thereby and activating them in facilitating the excretion. Please important role in conjugation excretion of Bilirubin
Seven functions of lipids in the body
- provide fuel – Fatty acids, upon breakdown form acetyl COA, NADH, and FADH; stored as triglycerides
- Compose cell membranes
- Steroid hormones – sidechains a touch of the C-17 carbon
- sex hormones – estrogen, progesterone, testosterone
- glucocorticoids – Cortizone, cause arise in serum glucose levels
- mineralocorticoids – aldosterone, retain sodium in the body - by lessons – part polar and nonpolar which facilitates they’re functioning as detergents, which bind to lipids and surrounding polar medium; emulsify fat in the gut
- Prostaglandins – have diverse hormonelike functions
- Fat-soluble vitamins – A, D, E, K
- Lipids can combine with carbohydrates are proteins to create glycolipids and lipoproteins
What is the difference between saturated and unsaturated fatty acids?
Saturated – contain only single bonds
Unsaturated – those that contain double bonds between some carbon atoms
What’s the amount of energy provided by lipids carbohydrates and proteins
Lipids 9 kcal/gram
Carbohydrates 4 kcal/g
Proteins 4 kcal/g
Describe the role of lipids one Saram glucose is low
Breakdown to triglycerides, the glycerol part of which can be used to produce more glucose
Describe insulins role in lipid metabolism
Insulin inhibits lipid breakdown by a number of mechanisms and increases the synthesis of glycogen, fatty acids, triglycerides and, proteins; reducing the level of cyclic AMP, promotes the transfer of glucose into cells which can be converted and stored as triglycerides
Define essential fatty acid
Required in the diet, as we cannot synthesize their double bonds, example linoleate and lenolenate
Ketone
Produced in the course of breakdown of fatty acids
Hydroxylation
Used to detoxify certain drugs; and oxidoreductase that facilicates couples oxidation of two donors with incorporation of oxygen into one of the donors, oxidation of the other donor and formation of water
List the organs that can utilize ketones as fuel
Brain during starvation and cardiac muscle
Describe the disease state the elevated key tones in the blood may indicate
DM type 1
Name the form in which lipids are stored
Triglycerides they can be reverted to fatty acids and glycerol and can be used as fuel
List the function of prostaglandins?
Fatty acids containing 20 carbons arranged as five C ring with two legs
Smooth muscle contraction – blood pressure, blood flow, degree of bronchial constriction and uterine contraction
Platelet aggregation
Inflammatory response – act is chemotactic agents, attracting leukocytes to the site of inflammation
Appear to increased pain and fever, induce sleep or wakefulness
Describe the chemical structure that differentiates glycerol from Serine
Glycerol is used in the storage of fatty acid’s and has a hydroxyl group and it’s middle carbon and a hydroxyl group on the first carbon
Serine is used in the storage of sphingolipids. Serine has an amine group on the middle carbon and a carboxylic acid group on the first C
What’s the structure and function of ceremide
Are found in high concentrations within the cell membrane of cells. Can act as signaling molecule regulating The differentiation, proliferation, programmed cell deat (apoptosis)
Structure and function of sphyingomyelins
Found in cell membranes and especially in the myelin sheaths that surround nerve axons
= ceramide plus a phosphorylcholine group
Function and structure of cerebrosides
Are found in myelin sheaths of nerves, and nervous tissues both gray and white matter of the brain and our major constituents of oligodendrocytes of the CNS
They ceramide plus glucose or galactose
Structure and function of ganglioside
Can be found on the surface of oligosaccharides and provide cells with distinguishing surface markers that can serve in cellular recognition and cell to cell communication
Hey ceremide plus in oligosaccharide and sialic acid
List biological functions of cholesterol
Give rise to fat-soluble vitamins and coenzyme Q (used an electron transport)
LDL needed in the body. It occurs naturally in the body and is essential for bodily functions vital for life. LDL is also vital because it transferred to sensual fatty acids into cells
Cholesteryl necessary for lipid bilayer of cell membranes over 90% of cholesterol is from body cells. If there is not enough cholesterol on the cell membrane, the walls lose the rigidity and expand outward, due to the inner pressure of the cell, leading to possible so damage or lysis.
Cholesterol is essential for life. Over 90% cholesterol found the body cells, where it give integrity to the cell structure and regulates to wait for nutrients and waste products
