07/6 1st Psychology Exam Flashcards
1
Q
What is Reciprocity?
A
Mothers respond to infant alertness.
2
Q
What is interactional synchronicity?
A
Interactions between mothers and baby’s have become co-ordinated.
3
Q
Who linked quality of attachment to synchronicity?
A
Isabella et al. proposed that caregiver-attachment should be synchronised.
4
Q
Outline a positive and negative evaluation of reciprocity and internal synchrony?
A
- hard to know the intentions, if there is any behind baby’s gestures.
- controlled situations mean finite details are captured so high validity.
5
Q
How did Feldman criticise internal synchrony?
A
Said that they were just observations and the intentions behind them cannot be known.
6
Q
Outline three theories on attachment figures?
A
- parent/infant attachment (mostly mother with father slightly important)
- Role of the father for play and stimulation
- fathers as primary caregivers
7
Q
Who proposed that father-infant attachment is less important?
A
Grossman et al.
8
Q
Outline three evaluations of suggesting either parent is better than the other?
A
- children with unusual family types develop no differently.
- fathers aren’t primary caregivers because of biology or society
- socially sensitive to suggest that one parents is less good at parenting.
9
Q
Outline Schaffer and Emerson’s 60 Glasgow babies study?
A
They investigated the age of attachment in babies by testing separation anxiety.
10
Q
In the Glasgow babies study, when did the babies develop a secure attachment?
A
Most babies after 32 weeks had developed a secure attachment and developed a multiple attachments weeks later.
11
Q
Name four evaluations of Schaffer and Emerson’s Glasgow babies study?
A
- good external validity because the observations were carried out at home
- longitudinal study
- confounding variables weren’t controlled
- all families investigated were working class and similar so if can’t be generalised.
12
Q
What four stages of attachment did Schaffer and Emerson propose?
A
Asocial stage: little observable social behaviour
Indiscriminate attachment: accept affection from all adults
Specific attachment: attachment with one individual, high separation and stranger anxiety
Multiple attachments: can attach to a secondary adult
13
Q
Name three evaluations of Schaffer and Emerson’s four stages of attachment?
A
- just because no behaviour was observed doesn’t mean it’s asocial
- just because a child protests when a parent leaves doesn’t mean they’re attached
- their method of measurement was limited
14
Q
What did Van Ljzendoorn et al. find that went against Schaffer and Emerson’s stages?
A
They found that multiple attachments may appear first.
15
Q
Outline Lorenz’s research?
A
Goslings saw Lorenz as they hatched and imprinted and he found they attached to the first thing that moved. And adult geese tried to mate with whatever they attached to.
16
Q
Name to Evaluations of Lorenz’s study?
A
- hard to generalise birds to humans
- unethical
17
Q
What did Guiton et al. find to support Lorenz’s study?
A
Found that birds that imprinted on a rubber glove tried to mate with a rubber glove.
18
Q
Outline Harlow’s research?
A
Baby monkeys given the option of cloth or wire mother with a feeding bottle. He found that the monkeys cling to the cloth mother over the cold one that fed them.
19
Q
What was the critical period for Harlow’s monkeys?
A
90 days.
20
Q
How was Harlow’s study unethical?
A
The monkeys were maternally deprived and became socially dysfunctional and outcast when re-introduced.
21
Q
What did Harlow’s monkeys study teach us about attachment?
A
Monkeys prefer warmth and comfort over food.
22
Q
Which theory does Harlow’s monkeys go against?
A
Cupboard love.
23
Q
Name three criticisms of Harlow’s monkeys?
A
- allows deeper understanding into child abuse cases
- extremely unethical
- generalising too much
24
Q
Outline learning theory as an explanation of attachment?
A
Classical conditioning and Operant conditioning.
25
What is classical conditioning?
The conditioning of unconditioned stimuli to get a conditioned response.
26
What is operant conditioning?
Negative and positive reinforcement.
27
What does the social learning theory suggest comfort is second to in attachment?
Hunger.
28
Outline three negatives of the social learning theory's approach to attachment?
- Animal studies proved that comfort is first.
- Schaffer and Emerson showed that babies attach not necessarily to who feeds them
- ignores reciprocity and interactional synchronicity
29
What did Bowlby say monotropy was?
One attachment with the mother is first, better and more important.
30
What did Bowlby say social releasers were?
Big eyes, cute faces that will draw in mothers and make them loved.
31
What did Bowlby say the internal working model was?
First attachment is a model for all other relationships in later life.
32
Outline Ainsworth's strange situation?
A controlled experiment that measured;
- proximity seeking
- exploration
- secure base behaviour
- separation anxiety
- response to reunion
33
What three types of attachment did Ainsworth identify?
Securely attached 75% British toddlers
Insecurely resistant 25% British toddlers
Insecurely avoidant 3% British toddlers
34
Outline 4 evaluations of Ainsworth's types of attachment?
- early attachment has been proven to affect later life
- inter-rater reliability agreed on 90% things
- maybe culture bound
- doesn't measure the right things
35
Outline what Van Ljzendoorn found about Cultural Variations of Ainsworth's strange situation?
They found greater variations inside countries than between countries.
36
Outline what Simonella et al. found about Cultural Variations of the Strange situation?
Italian rates of secure babies has changed recently because of a change in family practices.
37
What did Jin et al. find about Cultural Variations of the strange situation?
Korea and Japan have similar attachment types with lots of secure babies because of similar rearing techniques.
38
Name four evaluations of Cultural Variations of the strange situation?
- large samples from meta-analysis
- samples represent countries but each country contains many cultures
- method of assessment is westernised
- strange situation isn't valid
39
Outline Bowlby's theory of maternal deprivation?
- 44 thieves
- separation vs deprivation are different
- deprivation at young ages will affect emotional development> lots of criminal teenagers (affectionless psychopath)
40
According to Bowlby what is the critical period for humans?
30 months
41
Evaluate Bowlby's 44 thieves study?
Bowlby was a biased observer and animal studies showed that deprivation can have social affects.
42
What did Goldfarb find deprivation can cause?
Low IQ.
43
How did Goldfarb criticise the 44 thieves study in relation to orphans?
It can't apply to orphans because they're already traumatised.
44
What did Lewis find in his study to counter Bowlby's argument?
Sample of 500 kids and found no link between deprivation and later criminality.
45
Name the two Romanian Orphanage studies?
- Rutters ERA study
| - Bucharest early intervention project
46
Outline Rutter's ERA study?
165 orphans adopted into Britain in loving families. Despite this they had low IQs and disinhibited attachment.
47
What is disinhibited attachment?
The type of attachment children who have experienced prolonged probation in institutions.
48
Outline Bucharest early intervention project?
Random allocation to fostering or institutions in Uk; 19% secure attached in institutions, 74% secure in fostering.
49
Name four evaluations of Romanian orphanage studies?
- real life application
- helps in aftercare
- fewer extraneous variables
- case studies are hard to generalise and not typical cases
- extremely unethical because they're already traumatised.
50
Outline research into influence of early attachment on later relationships?
Internal working model affects all life relationship
51
What did Kerns find about how attachment can affect relationships in later life?
Securely attached form better relationships.
52
What did McCarthy find about attachments on later relationships?
Secure people have better relationships with family, friends and partners.
53
What did Hazan and Shaver find about early attachments affect on later life relationships?
Secure better long lasting relationships and the other two have fear of intimacy and jealousy.
54
Evaluate three points of studies on the affect of early attachment on later relationships?
- self report techniques used in studies lack validity
- association-relation doesn't mean causation
- it's deterministic
55
What three types of conformity did Kelman suggest?
Internalisation, identification and compliance
56
What did Deutsch and Gerard suggest were the two reasons for conformity?
Informational social influence
| Normative social influence
57
What did Lucas et al. find about conformity amongst hard maths questions?
More people conformed on harder maths questions.
58
What did Schulz find about conformity in groups?
The more people who conformed in a group the more likely others are supposed to conform.
59
Name two negative evaluations of the types of conformity?
- informative social influence doesn't affect everybody
| - normative social influence doesn't affect everybody in the same way; individual differences.
60
What percentage of Asch's participants conformed at least once?
75% conformed at least once.
61
What percentage of Asch's participants conformed and gave the wrong answer?
36.8%
62
Why did the participants say they conformed in Asch's study?
Out of fear of rejection.
63
In Asch's study, what did he find when using three confederates?
He found that with 3 confederate, conformity changed to 31.8%. But any more than 3 participants had little affect.
64
In Asch's study when unanimity varied and there was the presence of another non-conforming confederate what did he find?
Conformity dropped to 25%
65
When the task was made more difficult in Asch's study, what did he find?
When the lines were made similar lengths, conformity increased.
66
In Perrin and Spencer's remake of Asch's study, what was the rate of conformity?
1/365 engineering students.
67
Evaluate Perrin and Spencer's recreation of Asch's study?
- in England
- may have been a child of its time
- culture bound
- Asch's was all men
68
How does Fiske negatively evaluate Asch's study?
"Asch's groups were not very groups."
| -they didn't accurately represent real groups of people in society because it was artificial.
69
How does Nero suggest Asch's research was gender bound?
Studies have found that women are more so concerned with their social status so would act differently.
70
Why did Bond and Smith say Asch's research was culture bound?
They found that conformity was much higher in collectivist society's like China.
71
How is Asch's research negatively applied to society?
It's hard to generalise white middle class American men to the world.
72
What did Williams and Sogon find studying conformity amongst friends?
Conformity is higher amongst friends.
73
How was Asch's study unethical?
It was unethical to mislead them and didn't tell them the true purpose of the study.
74
What were the Stanford Prison Guards like?
1/3 were harsh
1/3 were fair
1/3 were kind
75
How did Zimbardo do background checks on the participants?
To check if they were emotionally stable and physically healthy.
76
Outline what took place in The Stanford Prison Experiment?
- after 2 days prisoners rebelled
- they were separated, humiliated and made docile
- 1 prisoner left on the first day because of psychological harm.
- two more were released on the fourth day
77
Name three positive evaluations of Zimbardo's study?
- allowed insightful look into police and prison brutality
- good control over the prison
- high internal validity
78
What percentage of prison conversations were about prison life in Zimbardo's study?
90%
79
Name five negative evaluations of Zimbardo's study?
- lack of realism
- artificial
- zimbardo exaggerated findings
- BBC remake found prisoners took control and had riots
- extremely unethical
80
Outline Milgram's procedure?
Recruited 40 men who were paid to take part in a 'memory' experiment where they played the teacher and had to electric shocks if the confederate learner couldn't remember.
81
Name a prod from Milgram's study?
"The experiment requires you continue."
82
How many participants in Milgram's study stopped under 300 volts?
0.
83
What percentage of participants in Milgram's study stopped at 300 volts?
5%.
84
What percentage of people in Zimbardo's study continued until 450 volts?
65%.
85
Describe the characteristics of the participants in Milgram's study?
They were sweating, trembling, glancing around nervously and digging nails into their hands.
86
When debriefed what percentage said they were glad they took part in Milgram's study?
84%.
87
What did Perry hear on the tapes to suggest Milgram's study had low internal validity?
Participants expressed their disbelief.
88
When repeated by Shendon and King, what did they find the obedience rate for men and women was?
Men: 54%
Women:100%
89
What percentage of participants shocked someone up to 450 volts on the French death game show?
80%
90
What three Variations of his study did Milgram's also study?
- proximity
- location
- uniform
91
When Milgram's made the participant closer in proximity to the learner what was the obedience rate?
40% when close.
| 30% when they had to force the learners hand down.
92
What did Milgram find when he moved his study to a run down office block?
Conformity dropped to 47.5%
93
What did Milgram find when the experiment observing was a confederate person off the street?
Dropped to 20%.
94
What was Bickman's study that showed the power of obedience to uniforms?
People obeyed a security guard over a businessman and abnormal passerby when asked to pick up rubbish.
95
Name three evaluations of Milgram's situational variables?
- lack of internal validity
- cross culture support from non western countries
- Milgram's control over variables was highly valid
96
What is the agentic state?
Acting as an agent of another.
97
What is the autonomous state?
Free to act without responsibility.
98
What did Blass and Schmidt find about the agentic state?
They found that people do blame their authority figure when they did something under orders.
99
What was Hofling et al.'s 22 nurses study?
21/22 nurses conformed to administer drugs that they should've known better to from a superior doctor.
100
What is legitimacy of authority?
Created by the heirachial nature of society.
101
What is destructive authority?
When someone abuses their power and uses it in problematic ways.
102
When did Gamson et al. find obedience levels dropped?
In the presence of other disobedient models.
103
Who proposed the Authoritarian personality?
Adorno et al.
104
Outline Adorno et al. Study?
He used a scale to measure unconscious attitudes towards ethical minorities. He found that people with higher scores had authoritarian personalities and extreme views. They have extreme respect for authority and will obey. Caused by strict parenting.
105
Evaluate Adorno et al.'s authoritarian personality?
- it was found that some of Milgram's participants had authoritarian personalities.
- can't explain cutler wide obedience
- says that all political right wing extremists will obey
- maybe he correlation not causation
106
What methodological error was there with Adorno et al.'s questionnaire?
If you ticked straight down on boxes it would make you something you're not.
107
Name two factors that can help attribute to resistance of obedience and conformity?
Conformity: is reduced when there is other non-conformers
Obedience: decreases when there is another disobedient member that acts like a role model.
108
What is the locus of controls
LOC is the sense of what directs events in our lives.
109
Who proposed LOC?
Ritter.
110
What is the continuum in relation to locus of control?
High internal at one end and high external at the other end.
High internal = low internal = low external = high external
111
What did Holland find about Milgram's participants score on the LOC?
They were all externally high.
112
How can LOC be applied to current society?
People have become more internally high on the LOC because they want to be in control of their own lives.
113
What four factors increase minority influence?
- consistency
- commitment
- flexibility
- snowball effect
114
How has social influence affected social change?
- minority influence is powerful, e.g. Civil rights
- nsi can highlight issues that the majority hadn't even considered
- disobedient role models (MLK)
- gradual commitment
115
Evaluate social influences effect on social change?
- nsi, reducing energy consumption
- minority influence is long, indirect and limited
- majority views are always more influential
- not always easy because of methodological barriers
116
Who proposed that stm is acoustic and ltm is semantic?
Baddeley
117
Evaluate Baddeley's research into coding of memory?
-the triagrams he used had no personal significance so the experiment was artificial.
118
Who suggested the digit span of memory was 9.3 and 7.3 for letters?
Jacobs.
119
Who proposed that we chunk memory in 7 +\- 2?
Miller.
120
Evaluate Jacob's findings of digit and letter span?
It was hundreds of years ago and confounding variables weren't controlled.
121
What did Cowan find to Support Miller's 7 +/- 2 finding?
He estimated the brain could hold 4 chunks of information.
122
Who proposed that the time span of memory without rehearsal was 18 seconds?
Peterson and Peterson
123
Outline Bahrick et al.'s study?
Interviewed ex-students of a school and tested for:
- recognition of faces
- recall
124
What did Bahrick et al.'s study find?
- after 15 years, 90% of people could recognise faces
- 60% could recall
- recall after 48 years dropped to 70%.
125
Evaluate Peterson and Peterson's study?
- meaningless stimuli
| - may have been displacement not decay
126
Evaluate Bahrick et al.'s study?
High internal validity because it was real people from their past however there could have been confounding variablesс
127
What does the multi store model of memory consist of?
Sensory register
| STM AND LTM
128
Evaluate the multi store model of memory?
- many studies correlate that there is a definitive between LTM AND STM
- study of KF and amnesia patients shows there is different parts for visual and duality memories
- there is more than one type of rehearsal, how easy is it for information to go to LTM
- artificial materials
- more than one LTM type
129
What three types of LTM are there?
Episodic memory
Semantic memory
Procedural memory
130
Evaluate the three types of LTM?
- clive wearing and him both had episodic memory but find semantic and procedural memory
- neuro-imaging scans show that different tasks highlight different parts of the brain
- real world application
131
Outline the contents of the working memory model?
Central executive
Phonological loop
Visio-spatial sketch pad
Episodic buffer
132
Evaluate the working memory model of memory?
- KF had good auditory memory but had visual memory
- difficult to do two visual tasks at once
- central executive not fully explored
- brain scanning shows clear separate areas
133
What two explanations for forgetting are there?
Interference and retrieval failure
134
What is interference and how does it lead to forgetting?
Proactive- old memories replaced with new ones
| Retroactive- new memories replaced with old ones
135
What did McGeoch and McDonald find to support interference?
People had trouble recalling similar words.
136
Evaluate interference?
- well controlled &a lab study
- artificial materials were used
- time between learning and recalling may change it
137
What did Baddeley and Hitch find to support interference?
Rugby players could remember the teams they played far back but they could only remember the most recent they played not a certain number of weeks ago.
138
What is retrieval failure and how does it lead to forgetting?
Remembering through cues.
139
Who proposed retrieval failure?
Tulving
140
What two types of retrieval failure did Tulving propose?
Context-dependent forgetting and state-dependent forgetting
141
Outline retrieval failure?
Context dependent forgetting- being above or under water
| State dependent forgetting- on drugs or off drugs
142
What two factors can affect eye witness testimony?
Leading questions
| Anxiety
143
How do leading questions affect eye witness testimonys?
Speeding car, when asked if it crashed they stated there was glass on the floor when there wasn't. Also different words meant they assumed the speed was different.
144
Who proposed that leading questions can affect eye witness testimony?
Loftus and Palmer.
145
What was Gabbert at al.'s research into leading questions?
When two people who saw different videos talked to each other before the interview they would recal things from each other's videos.
146
Evaluate research into leading questions?
- real life application
- tasks were artificial
- individual differences
- demand characteristics
147
What is anxiety and how does it affect eye witness testimony?
Anxiety can affect someone's ability to recall information accurately.
148
Who proposed that anxiety had a negative effect on EWT?
Johnson and Scott: weapon focus and knife compared to pencil in blood.
149
Who proposed anxiety has a positive effect on EWT?
Yuille and Cutshall:
| High recall months later after a real life shooting
150
Who proposed that anxiety can have both good and bad effects on EWT?
Yenkes-Dodson.
151
How can EWT's be improved?
Cognitive interviews.
152
Name all four aspects of he cognitive interview?
1. Report everything
2. reinstate the context
3. Reverse order
4. Change prospective
153
How was the cognitive interview later improved?
Ask them about social dynamic and maintain eye contact
154
Evaluate the cognitive interview?
- takes time and special training
- report everything and reinstating context works best
- better consistently than previous methods
- Variations of CI can be used.
155
Outline statistical deviation?
Numerically unusual behaviour of characteristics. E.g IQ
156
Evaluate statistical deviation?
- real life application in treatments
- unusual character is aren't always bad
- not everyone with these characteristics will benefit from a label
157
Outline deviation from social norms?
Social judgements about what it normal that are culturally bound
158
Evaluate deviation from social norms?
- can't be sole explanation
- cultural relativism
- can abuse human rights
159
Outline failure to function adequately
Failure to cope with the demands of everyday life.
160
Evaluate failure to function?
- captures more personal traits
- alternative lifestyles
- it's subjective
161
Outline deviation from ideal mental health?
Jahoda listed traits that are he normality rather than abnormality.
162
Evaluate deviation from ideal mental health?
- includes all reasons someone might seek help
- cultural relativism
- few people can say they have all ideal traits
163
Outline three traits of phobias?
Behavioural: panic, avoidance and endurance
Emotional: irrationality, unreasonable and fear and anxiety
Cognitive: selective attention, irrational beliefs and cognitive distortions
164
Outline the behavioural explanation for phobias?
Classical and operant conditioning
165
Evaluate the biological explanation for phobias?
- learned and maintained
- explains seeking safety and avoidance
- can't account for no-trauma phobias
166
Outline systematic desensitisation?
Anxiety hierarchy
Relaxation methods
And eventually exposure gradually
167
Evaluate systematic desuntisaisation?
- found more effective than relaxation alone
- diverse patients
- less extreme option
- cognitive aspects not explained
168
Outline flooding?
Outright exposure
169
Evaluate flooding?
- more effective than other
- less effective for social behaviours
- high attrition rate
- traumatic not for kids
170
Outline traits of depression?
Behavioural: agitation, increased or decreased sleeping, eating, aggression and self harm.
Emotional: lowered mood, anger towards self and others and low self esteem.
Cognitive: poor concentration, negative bias and absolutist and thinking.
171
Outline the cognitive explanation for depression?
Faulty information processing
Negative self-schemas
The negative triad
172
Evaluate the cognitive explanation for Beck's theory of depression?
- Clark and beck found certain cognition make us vulnerable to depression
- practical application in cbt
- doesn't explain anger, hallucinations and delusions.
173
Outline the cognitive explanation for Ellis' ABC model for depression?
- activating agent (a) trigger
- beliefs (b) deluded
- consequences (c) over react
174
Evaluate the cognitive explanation of Ellis' ABC model for depression?
- some cases don't follow a triggering effect
- practical application in cbt
- doesn't explain anger and hallucinations
- insecure attachment linked to depression
175
Outline the cognitive treatment of cognitive-behaviour therapy for depression?
Beck's act- aims to identify negative thoughts, challenge them and question them.
Ellis' REBT- aims to identity and challenge irrational beliefs by argument.
176
Evaluate the cognitive treatment of cognitive-behaviour therapy for depression?
- significantly more effect than no treatment
- may not work in severe cases
- patient/therapist rapport needed
- some patients want to explore their past
177
Outline the characteristics of OCD?
Behavioural: compulsions decrease anxiety, avoid triggering situations.
Emotional: intense anxiety, depression and guilt and disgust.
Cognitive: obsessive thoughts, cognitive strategies to prevent, self insight.
178
Outline the biological explanation of genetics for OCD?
Candidate genes-causing genes (5HT1-D)
OCD is polygenic (230 possible genes)
-different types of OCD.
179
Evaluate the biological explanation of genes for OCD?
-twin studies shows OCD is influenced by genes (Nestadt.)
Too many candidate genes
Environmental risk factors that trigger it
180
Outline the biological explanation of neural activity for OCD?
Serotonin: low levels are linked with OCD
| Decision making problems are in the frontal lobes and the parahippocampal gurus
181
Evaluate the biological explanation of Neural activity for OCD?
- antidepressants that work on the serotonin systems alleviateS OCD
- not clear what mechanisms are involved
- shouldn't assume it's purely neural
- comorbid with depression
182
Outline the biological treatment of drug therapy for depression?
SSRI's decreases serotonin reuptake at synapses
Combine LBT and SSRIS
alternatives; chlomipramine.
183
Evaluate the biological treatment of drug therapy for OCD?
- SSRIS are superior to placebos
- it's cheaper and non disruptive to life
- can have side effects; indigestion, blurred vision, loss of sex Drive
- unreliable evidence
- some cases follow trauma
