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Introduction to Networks > 04_Physical Layer > Flashcards

04_Physical Layer Flashcards

1
Q

Wireless Router

A

These are the components of an access point:

The wireless antennas (These are embedded inside the router version shown in the figure above.)
Several Ethernet switchports
An internet port

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2
Q

Wired Connection to Wireless Router

A

Network Interface Cards

Network interface cards (NICs) connect a device to the network. Ethernet NICs are used for a wired connection, as shown in the figure, whereas wireless local area network (WLAN) NICs are used for wireless. An end-user device may include one or both types of NICs. A network printer, for example, may only have an Ethernet NIC, and therefore, must connect to the network using an Ethernet cable. Other devices, such as tablets and smartphones, might only contain a WLAN NIC and must use a wireless connection.

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3
Q

The Physical Layer

A

The OSI physical layer provides the means to transport the bits that make up a data link layer frame across the network media. This layer accepts a complete frame from the data link layer and encodes it as a series of signals that are transmitted to the local media. The encoded bits that comprise a frame are received by either an end device or an intermediate device. The physical layer encodes the frames and creates the electrical, optical, or radio wave signals that represent the bits in each frame. These signals are then sent over the media, one at a time. The destination node physical layer retrieves these individual signals from the media, restores them to their bit representations, and passes the bits up to the data link layer as a complete frame.

Before any network communications can occur, a physical connection to a local network must be established. A physical connection can be a wired connection using a cable or a wireless connection using radio waves. Network Interface Cards (NICs) connect a device to the network. Ethernet NICs are used for a wired connection, whereas WLAN (Wireless Local Area Network) NICs are used for wireless. The OSI physical layer provides the means to transport the bits that make up a data link layer frame across the network media. This layer accepts a complete frame from the data link layer and encodes it as a series of signals that are transmitted onto the local media. The encoded bits that comprise a frame are received by either an end device or an intermediary device.

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4
Q

True or false? The physical layer is only concerned with wired network connections.

A

false

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5
Q

True or false? When a frame is encoded by the physical layer, all bits are sent over the media at the same time.

A

false

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6
Q

The physical layer of the receiving device passes bits up to which higher level layer?

A

data link

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7
Q

What PDU is received by the physical layer for encoding and transmission?

A

frame

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8
Q

The physical layer standards address three functional areas:

A

Physical Components
Encoding
Signaling

The physical layer consists of electronic circuitry, media, and connectors developed by engineers. The physical layer standards address three functional areas: physical components, encoding, and signaling. Bandwidth is the capacity at which a medium can carry data. Digital bandwidth measures the amount of data that can flow from one place to another in a given amount of time. Throughput is the measure of the transfer of bits across the media over a given period of time and is usually lower than bandwidth. Latency refers to the amount of time, including delays, for data to travel from one given point to another. Goodput is the measure of usable data transferred over a given period of time. The physical layer produces the representation and groupings of bits for each type of media as follows:

Copper cable - The signals are patterns of electrical pulses.
Fiber-optic cable - The signals are patterns of light.
Wireless - The signals are patterns of microwave transmissions.

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9
Q

Physical Components

A

The physical components are the electronic hardware devices, media, and other connectors that transmit the signals that represent the bits. Hardware components such as NICs, interfaces and connectors, cable materials, and cable designs are all specified in standards associated with the physical layer.

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10
Q

Encoding

A

Encoding or line encoding is a method of converting a stream of data bits into a predefined “code”. Codes are groupings of bits used to provide a predictable pattern that can be recognized by both the sender and the receiver. In other words, encoding is the method or pattern used to represent digital information.

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11
Q

Signaling

A

The physical layer must generate the electrical, optical, or wireless signals that represent the “1” and “0” on the media. The way that bits are represented is called the signaling method. The physical layer standards must define what type of signal represents a “1” and what type of signal represents a “0”. This can be as simple as a change in the level of an electrical signal or optical pulse. For example, a long pulse might represent a 1 whereas a short pulse might represent a 0.

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12
Q

Bandwidth

A

Data transfer is usually discussed in terms of bandwidth. Bandwidth is the capacity at which a medium can carry data. Digital bandwidth measures the amount of data that can flow from one place to another in a given amount of time. Bandwidth is typically measured in kilobits per second (kbps), megabits per second (Mbps), or gigabits per second (Gbps). Bandwidth is sometimes thought of as the speed that bits travel, however this is not accurate. For example, in both 10Mbps and 100Mbps Ethernet, the bits are sent at the speed of electricity. The difference is the number of bits that are transmitted per second.

A combination of factors determines the practical bandwidth of a network:

  • The properties of the physical media
  • The technologies chosen for signaling and detecting network signals

Physical media properties, current technologies, and the laws of physics all play a role in determining the available bandwidth.

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13
Q

Bandwidth Terminology

A

Latency
- Latency refers to the amount of time, including delays, for data to travel from one given point to another.

  • In an internetwork, or a network with multiple segments, throughput cannot be faster than the slowest link in the path from source to destination. Even if all, or most, of the segments have high bandwidth, it will only take one segment in the path with low throughput to create a bottleneck in the throughput of the entire network.

Throughput
- Throughput is the measure of the transfer of bits across the media over a given period of time.

  • Due to a number of factors, throughput usually does not match the specified bandwidth in physical layer implementations. Throughput is usually lower than the bandwidth. There are many factors that influence throughput:
  • The amount of traffic
  • The type of traffic
  • The latency created by the number of network devices encountered between source and destination

Goodput
Goodput is the measure of usable data transferred over a given period of time. Goodput is throughput minus traffic overhead for establishing sessions, acknowledgments, encapsulation, and retransmitted bits. Goodput is always lower than throughput, which is generally lower than the bandwidth.

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14
Q

Which media uses patterns of microwaves to represent bits?

A

wireless

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15
Q

Which media uses patterns of light to represent bits?

A

fiber-optic

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16
Q

Which media uses electrical pulses to represent bits?

A

copper

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17
Q

Which of these is the name for the capacity of a medium to carry data?

A

bandwidth

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18
Q

Which of these is a measure of the transfer of bits across the media?

A

throughput

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19
Q

Characteristics of Copper Cabling

A

Copper cabling is the most common type of cabling used in networks today. In fact, copper cabling is not just one type of cable. There are three different types of copper cabling that are each used in specific situations.

Networks use copper media because it is inexpensive, easy to install, and has low resistance to electrical current. However, copper media is limited by distance and signal interference.

Data is transmitted on copper cables as electrical pulses.

The timing and voltage values of the electrical pulses are also susceptible to interference from two sources:

Electromagnetic interference (EMI) or radio frequency interference (RFI) - EMI and RFI signals can distort and corrupt the data signals being carried by copper media. Potential sources of EMI and RFI include radio waves and electromagnetic devices, such as fluorescent lights or electric motors.
Crosstalk - Crosstalk is a disturbance caused by the electric or magnetic fields of a signal on one wire to the signal in an adjacent wire. In telephone circuits, crosstalk can result in hearing part of another voice conversation from an adjacent circuit. Specifically, when an electrical current flows through a wire, it creates a small, circular magnetic field around the wire, which can be picked up by an adjacent wire.

To counter the negative effects of EMI and RFI, some types of copper cables are wrapped in metallic shielding and require proper grounding connections.

To counter the negative effects of crosstalk, some types of copper cables have opposing circuit wire pairs twisted together, which effectively cancels the crosstalk.

Networks use copper media because it is inexpensive, easy to install, and has low resistance to electrical current. However, copper media is limited by distance and signal interference. The timing and voltage values of the electrical pulses are also susceptible to interference from two sources: EMI and crosstalk. Three types of copper cabling are: UTP, STP, and coaxial cable (coax). UTP has an outer jacket to protect the copper wires from physical damage, twisted pairs to protect the signal from interference, and color-coded plastic insulation that electrically isolates wires from each other and identifies each pair. The STP cable uses four pairs of wires, each wrapped in a foil shield, which are then wrapped in an overall metallic braid or foil. Coaxial cable, or coax for short, gets its name from the fact that there are two conductors that share the same axis. Coax is used to attach antennas to wireless devices. Cable internet providers use coax inside their customers’ premises.

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20
Q

Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP)

A

Unshielded twisted-pair (UTP) cabling is the most common networking media. UTP cabling, terminated with RJ-45 connectors, is used for interconnecting network hosts with intermediary networking devices, such as switches and routers.

In LANs, UTP cable consists of four pairs of color-coded wires that have been twisted together and then encased in a flexible plastic sheath that protects from minor physical damage. The twisting of wires helps protect against signal interference from other wires.

UTP cabling consists of four pairs of color-coded copper wires that have been twisted together and then encased in a flexible plastic sheath. UTP cable does not use shielding to counter the effects of EMI and RFI. Instead, cable designers have discovered other ways that they can limit the negative effect of crosstalk: cancellation and varying the number of twists per wire pair. UTP cabling conforms to the standards established jointly by the TIA/EIA. The electrical characteristics of copper cabling are defined by the Institute of Electrical and Electronics Engineers (IEEE). UTP cable is usually terminated with an RJ-45 connector. The main cable types that are obtained by using specific wiring conventions are Ethernet Straight-through and Ethernet Crossover. Cisco has a proprietary UTP cable called a rollover that connects a workstation to a router console port.

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21
Q

Shielded twisted-pair (STP)

A

Shielded twisted-pair (STP) provides better noise protection than UTP cabling. However, compared to UTP cable, STP cable is significantly more expensive and difficult to install. Like UTP cable, STP uses an RJ-45 connector.

STP cables combine the techniques of shielding to counter EMI and RFI, and wire twisting to counter crosstalk. To gain the full benefit of the shielding, STP cables are terminated with special shielded STP data connectors. If the cable is improperly grounded, the shield may act as an antenna and pick up unwanted signals.

The STP cable shown uses four pairs of wires, each wrapped in a foil shield, which are then wrapped in an overall metallic braid or foil.

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22
Q

Coaxial cable

A

Coaxial cable, or coax for short, gets its name from the fact that there are two conductors that share the same axis. As shown in the figure, coaxial cable consists of the following:

  • A copper conductor is used to transmit the electronic signals.
  • A layer of flexible plastic insulation surrounds a copper conductor.
  • The insulating material is surrounded in a woven copper braid, or metallic foil, that acts as the second wire in the circuit and as a shield for the inner conductor. This second layer, or shield, also reduces the amount of outside electromagnetic interference.
  • The entire cable is covered with a cable jacket to prevent minor physical damage.
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23
Q

Which of the following attaches antennas to wireless devices? It can also be bundled with fiber-optic cabling for two-way data transmission.

A

coaxial

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24
Q

Which of the following counters EMI and RFI by using shielding techniques and special connectors?

A

STP

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25
Q

Which of the following is the most common network media?

A

UTP

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26
Q

Which of the following terminates with BNC, N type and F type connectors?

A

coaxial

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27
Q

Properties of UTP Cabling

A

Because UTP cabling is the standard for use in LANs, this topic goes into detail about its advantages and limitations, and what can be done to avoid problems.

When used as a networking medium, UTP cabling consists of four pairs of color-coded copper wires that have been twisted together and then encased in a flexible plastic sheath. Its small size can be advantageous during installation.

UTP cable does not use shielding to counter the effects of EMI and RFI. Instead, cable designers have discovered other ways that they can limit the negative effect of crosstalk:

Cancellation - Designers now pair wires in a circuit. When two wires in an electrical circuit are placed close together, their magnetic fields are the exact opposite of each other. Therefore, the two magnetic fields cancel each other and also cancel out any outside EMI and RFI signals.
Varying the number of twists per wire pair - To further enhance the cancellation effect of paired circuit wires, designers vary the number of twists of each wire pair in a cable. UTP cable must follow precise specifications governing how many twists or braids are permitted per meter (3.28 feet) of cable. Notice in the figure that the orange/orange white pair is twisted less than the blue/blue white pair. Each colored pair is twisted a different number of times.
UTP cable relies solely on the cancellation effect produced by the twisted wire pairs to limit signal degradation and effectively provide self-shielding for wire pairs within the network media.

28
Q

UTP cabling conforms to the standards established jointly by the TIA/EIA

A

Some of the elements defined are as follows:

Cable types
Cable lengths
Connectors
Cable termination
Methods of testing cable

main cable types that are obtained by using specific wiring conventions:

Ethernet Straight-through - The most common type of networking cable. It is commonly used to interconnect a host to a switch and a switch to a router.
Ethernet Crossover - A cable used to interconnect similar devices. For example, to connect a switch to a switch, a host to a host, or a router to a router. However, crossover cables are now considered legacy as NICs use medium-dependent interface crossover (auto-MDIX) to automatically detect the cable type and make the internal connection.
Note: Another type of cable is a rollover cable, which is Cisco proprietary. It is used to connect a workstation to a router or switch console port.

29
Q

UTP Cable Types and Standards

A

Cable Type | Standard | Application
- Ethernet Straight-through | Both ends T568A or both ends T568B | Connects a network host to a network device such as a switch or hub

  • Ethernet Crossover | One end T568A, other end T568B | Connects two network hosts Connects two network intermediary devices (switch to switch or router to router)
  • Rollover | Cisco proprietary | Connects a workstation serial port to a router console port, using an adapter
30
Q

Properties of Fiber-Optic Cabling

A

fiber-optic cabling is the other type of cabling used in networks. Because it is expensive, it is not as commonly used at the various types of copper cabling. But fiber-optic cabling has certain properties that make it the best option in certain situations, which you will discover in this topic.

Optical fiber cable transmits data over longer distances and at higher bandwidths than any other networking media. Unlike copper wires, fiber-optic cable can transmit signals with less attenuation and is completely immune to EMI and RFI. Optical fiber is commonly used to interconnect network devices.

Optical fiber is a flexible, but extremely thin, transparent strand of very pure glass, not much bigger than a human hair. Bits are encoded on the fiber as light impulses. The fiber-optic cable acts as a waveguide, or “light pipe,” to transmit light between the two ends with minimal loss of signal.

Optical fiber cable transmits data over longer distances and at higher bandwidths than any other networking media. Fiber-optic cable can transmit signals with less attenuation than copper wire and is completely immune to EMI and RFI. Optical fiber is a flexible, but extremely thin, transparent strand of very pure glass, not much bigger than a human hair. Bits are encoded on the fiber as light impulses. Fiber-optic cabling is now being used in four types of industry: enterprise networks, FTTH, long-haul networks, and submarine cable networks. There are four types of fiber-optic connectors: ST, SC, LC, and duplex multimode LC. Fiber-optic patch cords include SC-SC multimode, LC-LC single-mode, ST-LC multimode, and SC-ST single-mode. In most enterprise environments, optical fiber is primarily used as backbone cabling for high-traffic point-to-point connections between data distribution facilities and for the interconnection of buildings in multi-building campuses.

31
Q

Fiber-optic cables are broadly classified into two types

A 
Single-mode fiber (SMF)
Multimode fiber (MMF)
32
Q

Single-Mode Fiber

A

SMF consists of a very small core and uses expensive laser technology to send a single ray of light, as shown in the figure. SMF is popular in long-distance situations spanning hundreds of kilometers, such as those required in long haul telephony and cable TV applications.

33
Q

Multimode Fiber

A

MMF consists of a larger core and uses LED emitters to send light pulses. Specifically, light from an LED enters the multimode fiber at different angles, as shown in the figure. Popular in LANs because they can be powered by low-cost LEDs. It provides bandwidth up to 10 Gb/s over link lengths of up to 550 meters.

34
Q

Fiber-optic cabling is now being used in four types of industry

A
  • Enterprise Networks - Used for backbone cabling applications and interconnecting infrastructure devices
  • Fiber-to-the-Home (FTTH) - Used to provide always-on broadband services to homes and small businesses
  • Long-Haul Networks - Used by service providers to connect countries and cities
  • Submarine Cable Networks - Used to provide reliable high-speed, high-capacity solutions capable of surviving in harsh undersea environments at up to transoceanic distances. Search the internet for “submarine cables telegeography map” to view various maps online.
35
Q

Straight-Tip (ST) Connectors

A

ST connectors were one of the first connector types used. The connector locks securely with a “Twist-on/twist-off” bayonet-style mechanism.

36
Q

Subscriber Connector (SC) Connectors

A

SC connectors are sometimes referred to as square connector or standard connector. They are a widely-adopted LAN and WAN connector that uses a push-pull mechanism to ensure positive insertion. This connector type is used with multimode and single-mode fiber.

37
Q

Lucent connector (LC) Simplex Connectors

A

LC simplex connectors are a smaller version of the SC connector. These are sometimes called little or local connectors and are quickly growing in popularity due to their smaller size.

38
Q

Duplex Multimode LC Connectors

A

A duplex multimode LC connector is similar to a LC simplex connector, but uses a duplex connector.

39
Q

Fiber Patch Cords

A

Fiber patch cords are required for interconnecting infrastructure devices. The use of color distinguishes between single-mode and multimode patch cords. A yellow jacket is for single-mode fiber cables and orange (or aqua) for multimode fiber cables.

40
Q

Which of the following fiber-optic cable types can help data travel approximately 500 meters?

A

multimode

41
Q

Which of the following fiber-optic cable types use light emitting diodes (LEDs) as a data light source transmitter?

A

multimode

42
Q

Which of the following fiber-optic cable types use lasers in a single stream as a data light source transmitter?

A

single-mode

43
Q

Which of the following fiber-optic cable types is used to connect long-distance telephony and cable TV applications?

A

single-mode

44
Q

Which of the following fiber-optic cable types can travel approximately 100 km?

A

single-mode

45
Q

Which of the following fiber-optic cable types is used within a campus network?

A

multimode

46
Q

Properties of Wireless Media

A

Wireless media carry electromagnetic signals that represent the binary digits of data communications using radio or microwave frequencies.

Wireless media provide the greatest mobility options of all media, and the number of wireless-enabled devices continues to increase. Wireless is now the primary way users connect to home and enterprise networks.

These are some of the limitations of wireless:

  • Coverage area - Wireless data communication technologies work well in open environments. However, certain construction materials used in buildings and structures, and the local terrain, will limit the effective coverage.
  • Interference - Wireless is susceptible to interference and can be disrupted by such common devices as household cordless phones, some types of fluorescent lights, microwave ovens, and other wireless communications.
  • Security - Wireless communication coverage requires no access to a physical strand of media. Therefore, devices and users, not authorized for access to the network, can gain access to the transmission. Network security is a major component of wireless network administration.
  • Shared medium - WLANs operate in half-duplex, which means only one device can send or receive at a time. The wireless medium is shared amongst all wireless users. Many users accessing the WLAN simultaneously results in reduced bandwidth for each user.

Wireless media carry electromagnetic signals that represent the binary digits of data communications using radio or microwave frequencies. Wireless does have some limitations, including: coverage area, interference, security, and the problems that occur with any shared medium. Wireless standards include the following: Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11), Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15), WiMAX (IEEE 802.16), and Zigbee (IEEE 802.15.4). Wireless LAN (WLAN) requires a wireless AP and wireless NIC adapters.

47
Q

Types of Wireless Media

A

The IEEE and telecommunications industry standards for wireless data communications cover both the data link and physical layers. In each of these standards, physical layer specifications are applied to areas that include the following:

  • Data to radio signal encoding
  • Frequency and power of transmission
  • Signal reception and decoding requirements
  • Antenna design and construction
48
Q

wireless standards

A
  • Wi-Fi (IEEE 802.11) - Wireless LAN (WLAN) technology, commonly referred to as Wi-Fi. WLAN uses a contention-based protocol known as carrier sense multiple access/collision avoidance (CSMA/CA). The wireless NIC must first listen before transmitting to determine if the radio channel is clear. If another wireless device is transmitting, then the NIC must wait until the channel is clear. Wi-Fi is a trademark of the Wi-Fi Alliance. Wi-Fi is used with certified WLAN devices based on the IEEE 802.11 standards.
  • Bluetooth (IEEE 802.15) - This is a wireless personal area network (WPAN) standard, commonly known as “Bluetooth.” It uses a device pairing process to communicate over distances from 1 to 100 meters.
  • WiMAX (IEEE 802:16) - Commonly known as Worldwide Interoperability for Microware Access (WiMAX), this wireless standard uses a point-to-multipoint topology to provide wireless broadband access.
  • Zigbee (IEEE 802.15.4) - Zigbee is a specification used for low-data rate, low-power communications. It is intended for applications that require short-range, low data-rates and long battery life. Zigbee is typically used for industrial and Internet of Things (IoT) environments such as wireless light switches and medical device data collection.
49
Q

LAN

A

A common wireless data implementation is enabling devices to connect wirelessly via a LAN. In general, a WLAN requires the following network devices:

  • Wireless Access Point (AP) - These concentrate the wireless signals from users and connect to the existing copper-based network infrastructure, such as Ethernet. Home and small business wireless routers integrate the functions of a router, switch, and access point into one device, as shown in the figure.
  • Wireless NIC adapters - These provide wireless communication capability to network hosts.
50
Q

True or false. Wireless is not well suited for enterprise networks.

A

false

51
Q

True or false. Wireless LANs operate in full-duplex allowing all devices to send or receive data at the same time so the number of users does not impact performance.

A

false

52
Q

Which of the following wireless standards is best suited for industrial and IoT environments?

A

Zigbee

53
Q

Which of the following wireless standards is used for Personal Area Networks (PANs) and allows devices to communicate over distances of 1 to 100 meters?

A

Bluetooth

54
Q

A network administrator is troubleshooting connectivity issues on a server. Using a tester, the administrator notices that the signals generated by the server NIC are distorted and not usable. In which layer of the OSI model is the error categorized?

A

physical layer

55
Q

What type of cable is used to connect a workstation serial port to a Cisco router console port?

A

rollover

56
Q

Why are two strands of fiber used for a single fiber optic connection?

A

they allow for full-duplex connectivity

57
Q

Which procedure is used to reduce the effect of crosstalk in copper cables?

A

twisting opposing circuit wire pairs together

58
Q

What is one advantage of using fiber optic cabling rather than copper cabling?

A

it is able to carry signals much farther than copper cabling

59
Q

A network administrator is designing a new network infrastructure that includes both wired and wireless connectivity. Under which situation would a wireless connection be recommended?

A

The end-user device needs mobility when connecting to the network

60
Q

Which type of UTP cable is used to connect a PC to a switch port?

A

straight-through

61
Q

Which statement correctly describes frame encoding?

A

it convert bits into a predefined code in order to provide a predictable pattern to help distinguish data bits from control bits

62
Q

What is a characteristic of UTP cabling?

A

cancellation

63
Q

A wireless LAN is being deployed inside the new one room office that is occupied by the park ranger. The office is located at the highest part of the national park. After network testing is complete, the technicians report that the wireless LAN signal is occasionally affected by some type of interference. What is a possible cause of the signal distortion?

A

microwave oven

64
Q

Which characteristic describes crosstalk?

A

the distortion of the transmitted messages from signals carried in adjacent wires

65
Q

What is the purpose of the OSI physical layer?

A

transmitting bits across the local media

66
Q

Which standards organization oversees development of wireless LAN standards?

A

IEEE

Introduction to Networks (6 decks)

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